How effective are on-farm conservation land management strategies for preserving ecosystem services in developing countries? A systematic map protocol

Background An extensive body of literature in the field of agro-ecology claims to show the positive effects that maintenance of ecosystem services can have on sustainably meeting future food demand, by making farms more productive and resilient, and contributing to better nutrition and livelihoods of farmers. In Africa alone, some research has estimated a two-fold yield increase if food producers capitalize on new and existing knowledge from science and technology. Site-specific strategies adopted with the aim of improving ecosystem services may incorporate principles of multifunctional agriculture, sustainable intensification and conservation agriculture. However, a coherent synthesis and review of the evidence of these claims is largely absent, and the quality of much of this literature is questionable. Moreover, inconsistent effects have commonly been reported, while empirical evidence to support assumed improvements is largely lacking. Objectives This systematic map is stimulated by an interest to (1) collate evidence on the effectiveness of on-farm conservation land management for preserving and enhancing ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes, by drawing together the currently fragmented and multidisciplinary literature base, and (2) geographically map what indicators have been used to assess on-farm conservation land management. For both questions, we will focus on 74 low-income and developing countries, where much of the world’s agricultural expansion is occurring, yet 80% of arable land is already used and croplands are yielding well below their potential. Methods/Design To this end, reviewers will systematically search bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed research from Web of Science, SCOPUS, AGRICOLA, AGRIS databases and CAB abstracts, and grey literature from Google Scholar, and 22 subject-specific or institutional websites. Boolean search operators will be used to create search strings where applicable. Ecosystem services included in the study are pollination services; pest-, carbon-, soil-, and water-regulation; nutrient cycling; medicinal and aromatic plants; fuel wood and cultural services. Outputs of the systematic map will include a database, technical report and an online interactive map, searchable by topic. The results of this map are expected to provide clarity about synergistic outcomes of conservation land management, which will help support local decision-making

Back to the Grindstone? The Archaeological Potential of Grinding-Stone Studies in Africa with Reference to Contemporary Grinding Practices in Marakwet, Northwest Kenya

This article presents observations on grinding-stone implements and their uses in Elgeyo-Marakwet County, northwest Kenya. Tool use in Marakwet is contextualized with a select overview of literature on grinding-stones in Africa. Grinding-stones in Marakwet are incorporated not only into quotidian but also into more performative and ritual aspects of life. These tools have distinct local traditions laden with social as well as functional importance. It is argued that regionally and temporally specific studies of grinding-stone tool assemblages can be informative on the processing of various substances. Despite being common occurrences, grinding-stone tools are an under-discussed component of many African archaeological assemblages. Yet the significance of grinding-stones must be reevaluated, as they hold the potential to inform on landscapes of past food and material processing

Win:Win landuse strategies for Africa: 1. Building on experience with agroforests in Asia and Latin America, and 2. Capturing economic and environmental benefits with multistrata agroforests

A win:win landuse strategy has to provide both economic and environmental benefits, ideally with enhanced livelihoods for the poor and the provision of commodities for the international market. This paper reviews recent developments in agroforestry and some case studies from SE Asia and Latin America, where income-generating non-timber forest products are being produced by subsistence farmers within either enriched forest fallows (agroforests) or other forms of multistrata agroforestry. It then examines the opportunities for similarly producing non-timber forest products in the four main regions of Africa (Humid lowland forests of West and Central Africa, the East African Highlands, and the Miombo woodlands of southern Africa and the Sahel), as well as opportunities to domesticate the priority tree species for income generation. \ud To follow and build on the Green Revolution, there is a need for landuses that: i) provide for livelihood needs of subsistence farmers; ii) meet the global needs for international commodities; and iii) provide international environmental services. In recent years, it has been realised that under certain circumstances, African farmers are planting trees on their farms and are developing agroecosystems that meet these needs. In addition, progress has been made towards the domestication of indigenous trees for their potential to generate farm income and so to reduce poverty. Some recommendations are made about research and development activities that would further encourage the development of sustainable landuses based on tree crops. A role is suggested for the industrial sector in tree crop/agroforestry development, based on new initiatives in the car manufacturing industry, but with opportunities of novel foods for the food and pharmaceutical industries

Physiology of vegetative reproduction

Within any of the numerous different types / systems of propagating trees, there are large numbers of factors that determine whether or not the propagule is in a good physiological condition, and will form a functional plant and grow. For example, when propagating from single-node, leafy cuttings from juvenile shoots, the factors that will determine the level of success are:-\ud \ud Stockplant environment x stockplant management x topophytic variables x node position x nursery management x post-severance treatments x propagation environment\ud \ud Each of these factors are themselves multi-faceted and influenced by the ambient environment (light quality and quantity, water, temperature, nutrients) of the stockplant garden, the nursery or the propagation bench. For example, in the stockplant garden the environment (light, water and nutrients) and the management of stockplants can have both short-term impacts on rooting ability by determining the levels of water or heat stress experienced by the tissues being propagated either before severance from the stockplant, or long-term impacts on rooting ability through their effects on the morphology or physiological condition of the shoots. Similarly once the cuttings have been severed from the stockplant the environment of the nursery and the handling of the severed cuttings before and after insertion in the propagation bed will also determine the levels of stress that the cuttings experience. In addition, the cuttings are also affected by the activities of the person doing the propagation and particularly the care taken by this person to minimise the levels of stress experienced by the cuttings (eg. maintenance in a cool, shady, moist environment; reduction of transpiration by leaf trimming, etc). The human element in this is what is commonly called having ‘Green fingers’ and reflects the person’s sensitivity to the needs of the plant material.\u

Agroforestry for biodiversity in farming systems

Agroforestry can be used to diversify and intensify farming systems through the integration of indigenous trees producing marketable timber and non-timber forest products, and is described in terms of an agroecological succession, in which climax agroforests are biodiverse, highly productive and profitable. The role of biodiversity in agroecosystem function is one of the keystones of sustainability. Complex agroforests that combine profitability with biodiversity are presented as a model worthy of expansion. However, little is known ecologically about how best to integrate agroforestry into the landscape, or to what extent agroforestry can be used to link forest patches and expand biogeographical islands. Tree domestication is one way to diversify and intensify agroforestry systems and to make them profitable. A wise domestication strategy for indigenous trees will involve the capture and maximization of intra-specific genetic diversity and so benefit both production and the environment

Livelihood trade-offs in the commercialisation of multiple-use NTFP: lessons from marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) in southern Africa

Commercialisation of non-timber forest products (NTFP), apart from the multitude of benefits, is often associated with trade-offs in terms of traditional and cultural livelihoods. This paper presents a holistic assessment of livelihood trade-offs involved in commercialisation of marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra), a multiple-use NTFP species in southern Africa. The study was conducted at two sites in South Africa (Bushbuckridge district and Ubombo district) and one in Namibia (former Ovamboland). Some of the key features of the study include the household use and trade in marula products, the biological aspects of the marula resources, marketing and trade of the species and policies associated with its utilisation. The paper also highlights the important and diverse role that marula has in local livelihoods and in contributing to the forms of livelihood capital like human, social, financial, natural and physical capital. Likely trade-offs in terms of livelihoods with increasing commercialisation of marula are discussed, along with potential threats and opportunities from commercialisation