Completeness of radiosonde humidity observations based on the Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive

Radiosonde measurements from the 1930s to present give unique information on the distribution and variability of water vapor in the troposphere. The sounding data from the Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive (IGRA) Version 2 are examined here until the end of 2016, aiming to describe the completeness of humidity observations (simultaneous measurements of pressure, temperature, and humidity) in different times and locations. Upon finding the stations with a non-negligible number of radiosonde observations in their period of record, thus removing pilot-balloon stations from IGRA, the selected set (designated IGRA-RS) comprises 1723 stations, including 1300 WMO stations, of which 178 belong to the current GCOS Upper-Air Network (GUAN) and 16 to the GCOS Reference Upper-Air Network (GRUAN). Completeness of humidity observations for a radiosonde station and a full year is herein defined by five basic parameters: number of humidity soundings, fraction of days with humidity data, average vertical resolution, average atmospheric pressure and altitude at the highest measuring level, and maximum number of consecutive days without data. The observations eligible for calculating precipitable water vapor – i.e., having adequate vertical sampling between the surface and 500&thinsp;hPa – are particularly studied. The present study presents the global coverage of humidity data and an overall picture of the temporal and vertical completeness parameters over time. This overview indicates that the number of radiosonde stations potentially useful for climate studies involving humidity depends not only on their record length, but also on the continuity, regularity, and vertical sampling of the humidity time series. Additionally, a dataset based on IGRA is described with the purpose of helping climate and environmental scientists to select radiosonde data according to various completeness criteria – even if differences in instrumentation and observing practices require extra attention. This dataset consists of two main subsets: (1)  statistical metadata for each IGRA-RS station and year within the period of record; and (2) metadata for individual observations from each station. These are complemented by (3) a list of the stations represented in the whole dataset, along with the observing periods for humidity (relative humidity or dew-point depression) and the corresponding counts of observations. The dataset is to be updated on a 2-year basis, starting in 2019, and is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1332686.</p

Influencia del Anticiclón del Atlántico Norte en la pluviosidad de la brisa marina en Carolina del Norte, Estados Unidos

The sea-breeze (SB) is an important source of summertime precipitation in North Carolina (NC, southeast United States). However, not all SB events produce precipitation. A climatology of wet and dry SB events in NC is used to investigate the conditions that are conducive to precipitation associated with the sea breeze. Radar imagery was used to detect 88 SB events that occurred along the NC coast between May-September of 2009-2012. The majority (85%) of SB events occurred during offshore flow (53%) or during flow that was parallel to the coast (22%). SB events were separated into dry (53%) and wet (47%) events and differences in the dynamic and thermodynamic parameters of the environment in which they formed were analyzed. Significant differences in dynamic and thermodynamic conditions were found. SB dry events occurred under stronger winds (6.00 ± 2.36 ms-1) than SB wet events (4.02 ± 2.16 ms-1). Moreover, during SB wet events larger values of convective available potential energy and lower values of convective inhibition were present, conditions that favor precipitation. Overall, the SB wet events accounted for 20-30% of the May-September precipitation along the NC coastal region. The position of the North Atlantic Subtropical High (NASH) controls both moisture availability and winds along the NC coast, thus providing a synoptic-scale control mechanism for SB precipitation. In particular, it was shown that when the NASH western ridge is located along the southeast coast of the United States, it causes a moist southwesterly flow along the NC coast that may favor the occurrence of SB wet events.La brisa marina (BM) es una importante fuente de precipitación de verano en Carolina del Norte (NC en su sigla en inglés), sudeste de Estados Unidos. Sin embargo, no todos los eventos de BM producen precipitación. En este trabajo se utiliza una climatología de eventos de BM lluviosos y secos en NC para investigar las condiciones que conducen a la precipitación. Se utilizaron imágenes de radar para detectar 88 eventos de BM ocurridos a lo largo de la costa NC entre mayo y septiembre de 2009 a 2012. La mayoría (85%) de los eventos de BM ocurrieron durante períodos de viento hacia el mar (53%) o viento paralelo a la costa (22%). Los eventos BM se separaron en eventos secos (53%) y lluviosos (47%) y se analizaron las diferencias en los parámetros dinámicos y termodinámicos del entorno en el que se formaron. Se encontraron diferencias significativas en las condiciones dinámicas y termodinámicas. Eventos de BM secos ocurrieron bajo vientos más fuertes (6,00 ± 2,36 ms-1) que los eventos de BM lluviosos (4,02 ± 2,16 ms-1). Las BM lluviosas ocurrieron bajo valores de energía potencial convectiva disponible más altos y valores del parámetro de inhibición convectiva más bajos, condiciones que favorecen la lluvia. En general, los eventos de BM lluviosos representaron el 20-30% de la precipitación a lo largo de la región costera de NC de mayo a septiembre. La posición de la Alta Subtropical del Atlántico Norte (ASAN) controla la disponibilidad de humedad y los vientos a lo largo de la costa de NC, proporcionando así un mecanismo de control de escala sinóptica para la precipitación de la BM. En particular, cuando la cresta occidental de la ASAN se localiza a lo largo de la costa sureste de los Estados Unidos, se produce un flujo de sudoeste húmedo a lo largo de la costa NC que puede favorecer la ocurrencia de eventos de BM lluviosos.This project was partially funded by the Climate and Large-Scale Dynamics and the Physical and Dynamic Meteorology programs of the National Science Foundation’s Division of Atmospheric and Geospatial Sciences, Award AGS-1118141

Phytoplankton chlorophyte structure as related to ENSO events in a saline lowland river (Salado River, Buenos Aires, Argentina)

We analyzed the phytoplankton present in the lower sector of the Salado River (Buenos Aires, Argentina) for 10 years (1995–2005) and detected significant changes occurring in chlorophyte abundance and species richness during La Niña event (1998–1999), which period was analyzed throughout the entire basin (main stream and tributaries). We compared the physicochemical and biologic variables between two El Niño–La Niña–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) periods – El Niño (March 1997–January 1998) and La Niña (May 1998–May 1999) – to identify possible indicators of a relationship between climatic anomalies and chlorophyte performance. Chlorophyte density increased during the La Niña. Under normal or extreme hydrologic conditions, mobile (Chlamydomonas spp.) and nonmobile (Monoraphidium spp.) chlorophytes codominated. These species belonged to Reynolds's functional groups X1 and X2, those typical of nutrient-enriched environments. Comparative analyses between El Niño and La Niña periods indicated significant differences in physicochemical (K+, dissolved polyphenols, particulate reactive phosphorus, alkalinity, pH) and biologic (species diversity and richness, phytoplankton and chlorophyte total densities) variables between the two periods at all basin sites. During the La Niña condition, species richness was greater owing to interconnected shallow lakes and drainage-channel inputs, while the Shannon diversity index was lower because of the high abundance values of Monoraphidium minutum. A detailed analysis of the chlorophytes in the entire basin, indicated that changes in density and species dominance occurred on a regional scale although diverse chlorophyte assemblages were identified in the different sectors of the Salado River basin. After La Niña event, the entire basin had the potential to revert to the previous density values, showing the resilience to global environmental changes and the ability to reestablish the general conditions of stability.Fil: Solari, Lía Cristina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata. Instituto de Limnología "Dr. Raúl A. Ringuelet". Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. Instituto de Limnología; ArgentinaFil: Gabellone, Nestor Adrian. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata. Instituto de Limnología "Dr. Raúl A. Ringuelet". Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. Instituto de Limnología; ArgentinaFil: Claps, Maria Cristina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata. Instituto de Limnología "Dr. Raúl A. Ringuelet". Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. Instituto de Limnología; ArgentinaFil: Casco, Maria Adela. Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. Division Ficologia; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; ArgentinaFil: Quaini, Karina Paola. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata. Instituto de Limnología "Dr. Raúl A. Ringuelet". Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. Instituto de Limnología; ArgentinaFil: Neschuk, Nancy Carolina. Dirección Provincial de Saneamiento y Obras Hidráulicas del Ministerio de Infraestructura, Vivienda y Servicios Públicos de la Provincia de Buenos Aires; Argentin

A new perspective of the climatological features of upper-level cut-off lows in the Southern Hemisphere

This study presents a detailed view of the seasonal variability of upper-level cut-off lows (COLs) in the Southern Hemisphere. The COLs are identified and tracked using data from a 36-year period of the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast reanalysis (ERA-Interim). The objective identification of the COLs uses a new approach, which is based on 300 hPa relative vorticity minima, and three restrictive criteria of the presence of a cold-core, stratospheric potential vorticity intrusion, and cut-off cyclonic circulation. The highest COL activity is in agreement with previous studies, located near three main continental areas (Australia, South America, and Africa), with maximum frequencies usually observed in the austral autumn. The COL mean intensity values show a marked seasonal and spatial variation, with maximum (minimum) values during the austral winter (summer), a unique feature that has not been observed previously in studies based on the geopotential. The link between intensity and lysis is examined, and finds that weaker systems are more susceptible to lysis in the vicinity of the Andes Cordillera, associated with the topographic Rossby wave. Lysis and genesis regions are close to each other, confirming that COLs are quasi-stationary systems. Also, COLs tend to move eastward and are faster over the higher latitudes. The mean growth/decay rates coincide with the major genesis and lysis density regions, such as the significant decay values across the Andes all year. As a consequence of using vorticity for the tracking method a longer lifetime of COLs is detected than in other studies, but this does not affect the total frequency of occurrence. Comparisons with other studies suggest that the differences in seasonality are due to uncertainties in the reanalyses and the methods used to identify COLs

Why the South Pacific Convergence Zone is diagonal

During austral summer, the majority of precipitation over the Pacific Ocean is concentrated in the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ). The surface boundary conditions required to support the diagonally (northwest-southeast) oriented SPCZ are determined through a series of experiments with an atmospheric general circulation model. Continental configuration and orography do not have a significant influence on SPCZ orientation and strength. The key necessary boundary condition is the zonally asymmetric component of the sea surface temperature (SST) distribution. This leads to a strong subtropical anticyclone over the southeast Pacific that, on its western flank, transports warm moist air from the equator into the SPCZ region. This moisture then intensifies (diagonal) bands of convection that are initiated by regions of ascent and reduced static stability ahead of the cyclonic vorticity in Rossby waves that are refracted toward the westerly duct over the equatorial Pacific. The climatological SPCZ is comprised of the superposition of these diagonal bands of convection. When the zonally asymmetric SST component is reduced or removed, the subtropical anticyclone and its associated moisture source is weakened. Despite the presence of Rossby waves, significant moist convection is no longer triggered; the SPCZ disappears. The diagonal SPCZ is robust to large changes (up to +/-6 degC) in absolute SST (i.e. where the SST asymmetry is preserved). Extreme cooling (change less than -6 degC) results in a weaker and more zonal SPCZ, due to decreasing atmospheric temperature, moisture content and convective available potential energy

TRY plant trait database - enhanced coverage and open access

Plant traits-the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and phenological characteristics of plants-determine how plants respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels, and influence ecosystem properties and their benefits and detriments to people. Plant trait data thus represent the basis for a vast area of research spanning from evolutionary biology, community and functional ecology, to biodiversity conservation, ecosystem and landscape management, restoration, biogeography and earth system modelling. Since its foundation in 2007, the TRY database of plant traits has grown continuously. It now provides unprecedented data coverage under an open access data policy and is the main plant trait database used by the research community worldwide. Increasingly, the TRY database also supports new frontiers of trait-based plant research, including the identification of data gaps and the subsequent mobilization or measurement of new data. To support this development, in this article we evaluate the extent of the trait data compiled in TRY and analyse emerging patterns of data coverage and representativeness. Best species coverage is achieved for categorical traits-almost complete coverage for 'plant growth form'. However, most traits relevant for ecology and vegetation modelling are characterized by continuous intraspecific variation and trait-environmental relationships. These traits have to be measured on individual plants in their respective environment. Despite unprecedented data coverage, we observe a humbling lack of completeness and representativeness of these continuous traits in many aspects. We, therefore, conclude that reducing data gaps and biases in the TRY database remains a key challenge and requires a coordinated approach to data mobilization and trait measurements. This can only be achieved in collaboration with other initiatives

Exit and Failure of Credit Unions in Brazil: A Risk Analysis

This study aims to investigate the factors that affect the market exit of Brazilian singular credit unions from 1995 to 2009; it also identifies and lists the determinants of various types of market exits and analyzes whether profitability is a significant factor for credit union survival. This study was conducted with accounting data provided by the Central Bank of Brazil, which derives only from individual cooperatives, i.e. singular credit unions. Quarterly financial statements from these credit unions that were active from 1995 to the second quarter of 2009 were employed, totaling 71,325 observations for 1,929 credit unions. Based on survival and the model of competing risks (such as the Cox, Exponential, Weibull, Gompertz, and Competing Risk models), the results show that there is no statistical evidence to ensure a correlation between profitability and credit union survival. The results also suggest that the size of credit unions plays a key role in their survival and longevity and that their funding and investment management are related to their survival and risk of market exit. In conclusion, the results confirm the initial idea that the duality inherent to credit unions - cooperative principles versus economic efficiency - might influence the stability, survival, and longevity of these institutions. Such results may also imply that a credit union embracing the rationale of a private bank will become more estranged from its members, something which will hinder its future operations and increase the likelihood of its exit from the market