ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF TIGER Panthera tigris AND LEOPARD Panthera pardus IN A SUBTROPICAL LOWLAND AREA, NEPAL

Ecology and conservation of tigers Panthera tigris and leopards Panthera pardus are studied in this thesis. The study was carried out between 2008 and 2011 in the Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), a subtropical lowland area in Nepal. Both these large carnivores are sympatric in many parts of their distributional ranges in Asia. Due to poaching, habitat loss and prey depletion, the tiger is already considered an endangered species globally, whereas leopard is nearly threatened. The present study addresses the ecology and conservation of these sympatric carnivores in one densely settled area situated within the Terai Arc Landscape of Nepal, where the tiger population recently declined by about sixty percent within a decade long period. Because carnivore ecology is largely governed by their prey, understanding the feeding ecology and behavioural flexibility of felids in prey selection is essential to address their conservation requirements. The prey selection by the two carnivores were quantified by scat analysis and the distance sampling line transect method in an area of about 250 km2. Results obtained from camera trapping were used to quantify the activity patterns as well as the status and spatial behaviour of the tigers and leopards. In addition, non- invasive genetic analysis of their scats were made to identify the minimum number of tigers and leopards in SWR. For the genetics part, the Karnali floodplain area (ca. 100km2) of Bardia National Park (BNP) located 150 km further east was also included. On average, 131 and 175 individual prey animals per km2 were estimated during the dry seasons of 2010 and 2011, respectively. Of these, 62-63% was wild prey and 38% were domestic animals. Individually, swamp deer was the most abundant wild prey, followed by chital, rhesus, langur, hog deer, wild boar, nilgai and muntjac in 2010. However, in 2011 chital was the most abundant among wild prey, followed by swamp deer, rhesus, hog deer, langur, wild boar, muntjac and nilgai. The analysis of 194 tiger and 42 leopard scats showed the occurrence of 12 and 14 prey species, respectively. Tiger and leopard diets were composed of a large quantity of wild ungulates (77% for tigers and 51% for leopards). The relative occurrences of prey items (wild ungulates) in the diet differed significantly between tiger and leopard (G=11.12; df=1, p<0.001). Medium sized prey species, such as chital were most common in the tiger diet, whereas small species showed up most frequently in the leopard diet, followed by medium sized species. Tigers consumed more large prey than the leopards did. The niche overlap values indicated a great dietary overlap of tiger than leopard. Camera trapping data showed that both tigers and leopards were photo-captured more frequently at night than during the day thus indicating that both have a nocturnal activity, however, tigers were found to have more diurnal activity than leopards. Variances in time use, temporally or spatially, have been recognized as behavioural characteristics that may motivate coexistence. In general, between 11AM- 5PM leopards were less active than tigers, probably to avoid the hottest period of the day, and because of a preference for the small sized prey that are most active during dusk and dawn. Concentration within certain areas and limited diurnal activity of leopards indicated the existence of temporal niche segregation between these cats. Camera trapping identified 11 individual tigers (six males and five females) and 9 leopards (five males and four females) in SWR. The genetic analysis identified only 5 tigers and 4 leopards from SWR, and 6 tigers from the Karnali floodplain of BNP. Population density of tigers in SWR was estimated at between 1.8 and 2.9/100 km2, while that for leopards was estimated at between 1.8 and 2.6/100 km2 during the study period. From 9 tigers in SWR. I calculated an average home range (HR) of 36.6 km2, with male HR (43.3 km2) being 1.45 times larger on average than those of females (29.9 km2). Among leopards (n=7) an average HR of 17.9 km2, was recorded, with males HRs (26.6 km2) 2.86 times larger than those of females (9.3 km2). The HRs of all male tigers overlapped each other at least partially and almost completely in some cases. HRs of male tigers overlapped more than those of female tigers, and male HRs overlapped with more than one individual female. Leopard HRs tended to overlap less than those of tigers, with values ranging up to 7 km2 for females to 2-24 km2 for males (overall mean 8.83 km2). As displayed by the tiger, male leopard HRs tended to overlap with those of several females. The data suggested that even though there was 12 to 18 % median overlap between tiger and leopard HRs, there was a clear spatial separation between them. Leopards were more restricted to the periphery of the reserve, while tigers occupied the core or mostly undisturbed areas of the reserve. This research provides the first set of data on tigers, leopards and their prey in SWR, Nepal during the dry season. However, immediate needs for further research on wildlife disease, especially focused on large carnivores, and human-disturbance in the reserve including prey availability in the eastern selection of the reserve area, an issue which was not included in this study. Furthermore research is needed on predator-prey relation with the inclusion of trans-boundary wildlife corridor utilization and the link between the smaller protected areas in the trans-border level

Canine Distemper Virus in Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus) in Nepal

From wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Serengeti to tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in the Russian Far East, canine distemper virus (CDV) has been repeatedly identified as a threat to wild carnivores. Between 2020 and 2022, six Indian leopards (P. pardus fusca) presented to Nepali authorities with fatal neurological disease, consistent with CDV. Here, we report the findings of a serosurvey of wild felids from Nepal. A total of 48 serum samples were tested, comprising 28 Bengal tigers (P. t. tigris) and 20 Indian leopards. Neutralizing antibodies were identified in three tigers and six leopards, equating to seroprevalences of 11% (CI: 2.8–29.3%, n = 28) and 30% (CI: 12.8–54.3%, n = 20), respectively. More than one-third of seropositive animals were symptomatic, and three died within a week of being sampled. The predation of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) has been posited as a potential route of infection. A comparison of existing diet studies revealed that while leopards in Nepal frequently predate on dogs, tigers do not, potentially supporting this hypothesis. However, further work, including molecular analyses, would be needed to confirm this

Cookstove Smoke Impact on Ambient Air Quality and Probable Consequences for Human Health in Rural Locations of Southern Nepal

Residential emission from traditional biomass cookstoves is a major source of indoor and outdoor air pollution in developing countries. However, exact quantification of the contribution of biomass cookstove emissions to outdoor air is still lacking. In order to address this gap, we designed a field study to estimate the emission factors of PM2.5 (particulate matter of less than 2.5 µ diameter) and BC (black carbon) indoors, from cookstove smoke using biomass fuel and with smoke escaping outdoors from the roof of the house. The field study was conducted in four randomly selected households in two rural locations of southern Nepal during April 2017. In addition, real-time measurement of ambient PM2.5 was performed for 20 days during the campaign in those two rural sites and one background location to quantify the contribution of cooking-related emissions to the ambient PM2.5. Emission factor estimates indicate that 66% of PM2.5 and 80% of BC emissions from biomass cookstoves directly escape into ambient air. During the cooking period, ambient PM2.5 concentrations in the rural sites were observed to be 37% higher than in the nearby background location. Based on the World Health Organization (WHO)’s AirQ+ model simulation, this 37% rise in ambient PM2.5 during cooking hours can lead to approximately 82 cases of annual premature deaths among the rural population of Chitwan district

Copromicroscopic study of gastrointestinal parasites in captive mammals at Central Zoo, Lalitpur, Nepal

Abstract Background Zoological gardens (Zoo) provide abode to various threatened animals or trafficked animals seized by the authorities, and injured and orphaned animals. Captive animals are more susceptible to infection as they are under significant stress due to diet and space which further dwindle their resistance to parasitic infections. Objectives This study was conducted to determine the prevalence and burden of gastrointestinal parasites in captive mammals housed at Central Zoo. Methods Fresh faecal samples from three orders of mammals including carnivora (n = 24), rodentia (n = 28) and artiodactyla (n = 35) were examined by direct smear, faecal floatation and sedimentation techniques, and the McMaster technique was applied to quantify parasite eggs per gram (EPG)/oocysts per gram (OPG) of a faecal sample. Results One or more parasite taxa were detected in 19.54% of the examined samples and five types of GIPs including one protozoon (Eimeria spp.) and four helminths (Strongyloides spp., Haemonchus spp. and Trichostrongylus spp. and hookworm) were recorded. The protozoan prevalence (6.89 %) was lower than helminths (12.64%). The Eimeria spp. was the most prevalent parasite (6.89%) with the highest OPG (427.77 ± 25.45SD) in spotted deer (Axis axis), and the highest prevalence was noticed among artiodactyla (34.28%) followed by carnivora (12.5%) and rodentia (7.14%). Artiodactyla had both single infection (25.71%) and double (8.57%) infection. The percentage of single infection (16.09%) was found to be higher than double infection (3.44%) among the captive mammals. The wild boar (Sus scrofa) had the highest EPG of 383.33 ± 76.37SD (Strongyloides spp.), while the spotted deer had the lowest EPG of 216.66 ± 76.37SD (hookworm). Conclusions Despite careful management practices, the parasitic infection may be attributed to the narrow enclosure, group housing and environmental contamination. The present finding provides baseline information on the parasitic infection in captive mammals, and can be used by zoo managers for the better life of captive animals

Contribution of buffer zone programs to reduce human-wildlife impacts : the case of the Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Buffer zones around parks/reserves are designed to maintain ecological integrity and to ensure community participation in biodiversity conservation. We studied the fund utilization pattern of buffer zone programs, mitigation measures practiced, and attitudes of residents in buffer zone programs of Chitwan National Park, Nepal. The buffer zone committees spent only a small portion (13.7%) of their budget in direct interventions to reduce wildlife impacts. Human-wildlife conflicts were inversely related to investment in direct interventions for conflict prevention and mitigation. Peoples’ attitudes towards wildlife conservation were largely positive. Most of the people were aware of buffer zone programs but were not satisfied with current practices. We recommend that buffer zone funds be concentrated into direct interventions (prevention and mitigation) to reduce wildlife conflicts. Our findings will be helpful in prioritizing distribution of funds in buffer zones of parks and reserves.Global Challenges (FSW

Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal - Fig 2

<p>Wildlife attacks on humans, livestock depredation and relief payments over the years in Buffer Zone of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, a) Human death and injury b) livestock depredation caused by tiger and leopard, and its relation with people on foreign employment c) Amount of relief distribution to the victim families with timeline of relief distribution scheme. The numbers in parenthesis is the relief amount per victim of human death provisioned in relief guidelines of Buffer Zone or government, R = Nepalese Rupees, K = thousand.</p