State-of-the-art in Power Line Communications: from the Applications to the Medium

In recent decades, power line communication has attracted considerable attention from the research community and industry, as well as from regulatory and standardization bodies. In this article we provide an overview of both narrowband and broadband systems, covering potential applications, regulatory and standardization efforts and recent research advancements in channel characterization, physical layer performance, medium access and higher layer specifications and evaluations. We also identify areas of current and further study that will enable the continued success of power line communication technology.Comment: 19 pages, 12 figures. Accepted for publication, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. Special Issue on Power Line Communications and its Integration with the Networking Ecosystem. 201

Physical layer security in power line communication networks: an emerging scenario, other than wireless

The authors consider the secure transmission of information over power line communication (PLC) networks. The focus is on the secrecy guaranteed at the physical layer, named physical layer security (PLS). Although PLS has been deeply investigated for the wireless case, it is not the same for the PLC environment. Thus, starting from the knowledge in the wireless context, the authors extend the results to typical PLC scenarios. In particular, the PLC channel statistics is evaluated and a performance comparison among PLC and wireless channels is performed, in terms of secrecy rate distribution. For the PLC case, the secrecy rate distribution, under a total power constraint, is evaluated for both optimal and uniform power distributions in broadband channels. To provide experimental evidence, the authors consider channel measures obtained in an in-home measurement campaign. The underlying network presents a tree topology, which introduces frequency and spatial correlation among channels, and suffers from the keyhole effect, generated by branches that depart from the same node. As shown by the numerical results, these effects can reduce the secrecy rate. Finally, the authors evaluate the secrecy rate region for the multi-user broadcast channel considering both simulated channel realisations and experimental channel measures

Allosteric optical control of a class B G-protein-coupled receptor

Allosteric regulation promises to open up new therapeutic avenues by increasing drug specificity at G‐protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs). However, drug discovery efforts are at present hampered by an inability to precisely control the allosteric site. Herein, we describe the design, synthesis, and testing of PhotoETP, a light‐activated positive allosteric modulator of the glucagon‐like peptide‐1 receptor (GLP‐1R), a class B GPCR involved in the maintenance of glucose homeostasis in humans. PhotoETP potentiates Ca(2+), cAMP, and insulin responses to glucagon‐like peptide‐1 and its metabolites following illumination of cells with blue light. PhotoETP thus provides a blueprint for the production of small‐molecule class B GPCR allosteric photoswitches, and may represent a useful tool for understanding positive cooperativity at the GLP‐1R

OptoGluNAM4.1, a Photoswitchable allosteric antagonist for real-time control of mGlu4 receptor activity

OptoGluNAM4.1, a negative allosteric modulator (NAM) of metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 (mGlu4) contains a reactive group that covalently binds to the receptor and a blue-light-activated, fast-relaxing azobenzene group that allows reversible receptor activity photocontrol in vitro and in vivo. OptoGluNAM4.1 induces light-dependent behavior in zebrafish and reverses the activity of the mGlu4 agonist LSP4-2022 in a mice model of chronic pain, defining a photopharmacological tool to better elucidate the physiological roles of the mGlu4 receptor in the nervous system

Shining light on an mGlu5 photoswitchable NAM: A theoretical perspective

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are important drug targets because of their involvement in several neurological diseases. Among mGluRs, mGlu5 is a particularly high-profile target because its positive or negative allosteric modulation can potentially treat schizophrenia or anxiety and chronic pain, respectively. Here, we computationally and experimentally probe the functional binding of a novel photoswitchable mGlu5 NAM, termed alloswitch-1, which loses its NAM functionality under violet light. We show alloswitch-1 binds deep in the allosteric pocket in a similar fashion to mavoglurant, the co-crystallized NAM in the mGlu5 transmembrane domain crystal structure. Alloswitch-1, like NAM 2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP), is significantly affected by P655M mutation deep in the allosteric pocket, eradicating its functionality. In MD simulations, we show alloswitch-1 and MPEP stabilize the co-crystallized water molecule located at the bottom of the allosteric site that is seemingly characteristic of the inactive receptor state. Furthermore, both NAMs form H-bonds with S809 on helix 7, which may constitute an important stabilizing interaction for NAM-induced mGlu5 inactivation. Alloswitch-1, through isomerization of its amide group from trans to cis is able to form an additional interaction with N747 on helix 5. This may be an important interaction for amide-containing mGlu5 NAMs, helping to stabilize their binding in a potentially unusual cis-amide state. Simulated conformational switching of alloswitch-1 in silico suggests photoisomerization of its azo group from trans to cis may be possible within the allosteric pocket. However, photoexcited alloswitch-1 binds in an unstable fashion, breaking H-bonds with the protein and destabilizing the co-crystallized water molecule. This suggests photoswitching may have destabilizing effects on mGlu5 binding and functionality

Illuminating phenylazopyridines to photoswitch metabotropic glutamate receptors: from the flask to the animals

Phenylazopyridines are photoisomerizable compounds with high potential to control biological functions with light. We have obtained a series of phenylazopyridines with light dependent activity as negative allosteric modulators (NAM) of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5). Here we describe the factors needed to achieve an operational molecular photoisomerization and its effective translation into in vitro and in vivo receptor photoswitching, which includes zebrafish larva motility and the regulation of the antinociceptive effects in mice. The combination of light and some specific phenylazopyridine ligands displays atypical pharmacological profiles, including light-dependent receptor overactivation, which can be observed both in vitro and in vivo. Remarkably, the localized administration of light and a photoswitchable compound in the peripheral tissues of rodents or in the brain amygdalae results in an illumination-dependent analgesic effect. The results reveal a robust translation of the phenylazopyridine photoisomerization to a precise photoregulation of biological activity

Two-photon neuronal and astrocytic stimulation with azobenzene-based photoswitches

This is an open access article published under an ACS AuthorChoice License. See Standard ACS AuthorChoice/Editors' Choice Usage Agreement - https://pubs.acs.org/page/policy/authorchoice_termsofuse.htmlSynthetic photochromic compounds can be designed to control a variety of proteins and their biochemical functions in living cells, but the high spatiotemporal precision and tissue penetration of two-photon stimulation have never been investigated in these molecules. Here we demonstrate two-photon excitation of azobenzene-based protein switches and versatile strategies to enhance their photochemical responses. This enables new applications to control the activation of neurons and astrocytes with cellular and subcellular resolution

Characterization and Modeling of Power Line Communication Channels

Nowadays, we live in a highly interconnected world, where the information exchange is the milestone that has pushed and drives the incredible growth experienced by our society. This huge amount of generated data traffic will be expected to grow even further in the next few years. In order to meet these future requirements and the customers needs, the telecommunications systems must evolve and improve. Although twisted pair copper and wireless technologies represent an established and widespread solution, extensively adopted for today's communication systems, they cannot achieve these goals alone. The desire to provide a new technology that would be able to exploit what was already existing and deployed, has led to the development of the power line communication (PLC) systems. The PLC technology exploits the existing power delivery infrastructure in order to deliver high speed and reliable data communication. Although the energy distribution grid is worldwide widespread, being able to reach each consumer around the world, it has not been conceived for data transmission at high frequencies. This leads to a challenging transmission environment, characterized by strong attenuation, high selectivity, with significant fading effects, and a great deal of noise. Despite these detrimental effects, a reliable and secure high speed communication can be established. However, in order to design and develop the best next generation devices, able to overcome the environment and medium limitations, a thoroughly knowledge and a comprehensive analysis of the PLC channel is fundamental. All the collected information enables the development of new and effective models, able to faithfully describe a real communication scenario, allowing to save money and time in the development process. The aim of this thesis is to provide a detailed PLC channel characterization, considering several environments belonging to both the indoor and the outdoor environments. Among the indoor scenarios, that identify a confined communication environment, the in-home, the in-car and the in-ship networks are analyzed. Furthermore, concerning the outdoor scenario, both the low voltage (LV) and medium voltage (MV) distribution grids are investigated. The properties of the noise that typically affects the different PLC environments are assessed. The study mainly focuses on the broadband frequency spectrum (BB-FS), although some comparisons with the narrowband frequency spectrum (NB-FS) are also tackled. The extensive analysis of the PLC network, performed for each considered scenario, allows to highlight the main properties and relationships that enable the development of new and effective channel models, herein described. The first part of this work deals with the characterization of the in-home single-input single-output (SISO) PLC channel, considering a large database of measurements that was carried out during a measurement campaign performed in Italy. A statistical analysis is presented in terms of normality test, channel frequency response (CFR) distribution and phase behavior. Moreover, the main and most commonly used statistical metrics, namely average channel gain (ACG), root-mean-square delay spread (RMS-DS) and coherence bandwidth (CB), are assessed and compared to each other in order to highlight the typical relationships. Then, the performance that can be achieved are computed, inferring the relation between the geometrical distance and the maximum achievable rate, as well as the improvements due to the bandwidth extension. Furthermore, the correlation that can be experienced by channels belonging to the same network, but connecting different nodes, is discussed. Finally, the line impedance is investigated, identifying the main existing relationships between the resistive and the reactive part. Then, the attention is moved to the multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) transmission scheme, still within the in-home environment. The signal transmission over all the three commonly available wires, typically deployed in domestic premises, is discussed and explained. The CFR statistics and characteristics are assessed basing on the channels collected by the special task force (STF) 410 of the ETSI during an experimental measurement campaign across Europe. Also the noise properties are discussed, providing a novel method to simulate the noise correlation among the spatial receiving modes, which is based on the actual noise measurements provided by the STF-410. In addition, the general processing system is discussed, describing the optimal transmission and reception scheme under two hypothesis, full channel state information (CSI) knowledge and no CSI knowledge. The performance, in terms of maximum achievable rate, are computed for both the cases. Afterwards, the focus is turned to in-vehicle communications, where two typical application scenarios, namely car and ship, are discussed and compared. In particular, a fundamental distinction is made among the electric car (EC) and the conventional car (CC) scenarios. Both channel and noise measurements that we carried out on a compact electric car are analyzed. The results are compared to an online available database of measurements concerning a conventional fuel car. A similar analysis is tackled considering measurements that we acquired on a large cruise ship. Finally, the two environments are compared in terms of statistical metrics relationship and average performance. Later, the outdoor communication context is addressed, investigating and comparing LV and MV distribution grids in both the narrow-band (NB) and broad-band (BB) spectra. The characterization of this transmission scenario is of fundamental importance since it has become very attractive, especially in recent times, for smart grid applications. The properties of one of the most known outdoor LV database and two MV set of measurements, that were carried out in two completely different network sites, are firstly discussed. Then, a comparison in terms of path loss, line impedance and background noise is tackled for the LV and MV networks in both the NB and BB frequency ranges. Some features of the main network devices usually deployed in the outdoor networks are also discussed. The final comparison, in terms of achievable rate, aims to assess if some improvements can be obtained by exploiting the BB-FS instead of the NB-FS. In order to provide an overall overview and a general comparison among all the previously discussed environments, the main channel properties and the statistical metrics relationships are shown together and distinctly discussed. Also the differences in terms of background noise properties are summarized. The channel and noise knowledge allows the computation of the SISO channel capacity distribution for all the environments, which is later compared to the MIMO channel capacity distribution for the in-home scenario. Two different noise types are considered for the MIMO capacity computation, namely spatially uncorrelated and correlated, relying on the ETSI STF-410 noise measurements. The second part of this work focuses on the channel modeling, which represents a quick and easy testing tool for the development and the simulation of standards and devices. This translates into a considerable saving in terms of costs and time, avoiding on-field measurements. All the detailed information previously collected, as well as the highlighted relationships, are the foundations on which we develop an extremely synthetic channel model, able to faithfully emulate a real MIMO PLC channel with a reduced set of parameters. The proposed model consists of a pure top-down approach, without any physical connection. It is extremely synthetic since it is able to numerically generate channel realizations, that are equivalent to the measurements, simply basing on the CFR amplitude and phase statistics and on their corresponding properties, such as the correlation exhibited among the frequencies, as well as between the different spatial modes. A final fundamental aspect is also taken into account. In a world based on a massive and constant flow of information, where usually the communications are private and confidential, ensuring the security of the exchanged data is of paramount importance. Towards this end, the concept of secure data communication is introduced focusing on the secrecy granted at the physical level, named physical layer security (PLS). As it is discussed, this concept completely differs from the secrecy ensured at the application layer, thus, exploiting encryption protocols through the use of keys. The main concepts underlying the secure data communication are discussed. In this respect, the wiretap channel is defined, evaluating the performance that can be achieved among a transmitter and an intended receiver, without releasing any information to a third counterpart. This quantity is known as secrecy capacity. The main differences between the conventional capacity and the secrecy capacity, and among the wireless and PLC scenarios, are highlighted. Furthermore, the detrimental influence on the secrecy capacity due to the typical PLC channel phenomena, such as the frequency selectivity and the multiple user (MU) correlation, as well as to the network topology, which gives rise to what is known as keyhole effect, are assessed. Afterwards, a typical MU broadcast scenario is considered, discussing and computing the achievable secrecy rate region under a total power and a quality of service (QoS) constraints. Finally, in an attempt to overcome all the PLC scenario limitations, a MIMO transmission scheme, a bandwidth extension, as well as a more fair background noise assumption are assessed, relying on experimental channel and noise measurements. The achievable secrecy rate is computed considering both an alternating optimization (AO) algorithm and a uniform power allocation approach. The results are compared to the SISO case, as well as to the conventional capacity, without secrecy constraint