Sexual and emotional jealousy in relation to the facial sexual dimorphism of a potential rival

Background and purpose: Previous studies have shown that men are more sensitive to sexual infidelity, while women are more sensitive to emotional infidelity. Studies have also shown that jealousy is evoked by the rival’s desirable characteristics. Therefore, it was assumed that women would be more jealous of a woman with a feminine face, while men would report greater levels of jealousy when presented with a rival with a masculine face. It was also predicted that these expected differences would depend on the infidelity type – sexual and emotional. Based on this, the aim of this study was to investigate differences in jealousy in relation to participants’ sex, the type of infidelity and the rival’s facial sexual dimorphism. Materials and methods: The study included 401 (164 men and 237 women) participants, aged between 18 and 35. Jealousy was assessed by using hypothetical scenarios of a partner’s emotional and sexual infidelity that involved rivals with a masculine and feminine face. Participants reported the intensity of jealousy on a 7-point scale. Results and conclusions: As predicted, men reported higher levels of jealousy over sexual, whereas women were more upset over emotional infidelity. Moreover, while there was no difference in jealousy among men in relation to the rival’s facial sexual dimorphism, women reported a higher intensity of jealousy toward a rival with a feminine face, regardless of the infidelity type. These results are interpreted by different adaptive mechanisms in men and women

Sexual dimorphism and quality of voice across the menstrual cycle

Dosadašnja istraživanja su potvrdila postojanje niza ponašajnih promjena žene u plodnom periodu menstrualnog ciklusa, čija je svrha privlačenje adekvatnog partnera. Uočene promjene različitih aspekata ponašanja su regulirane fluktuirajućom prirodom razine spolnih hormona. Nedavno su istraživači počeli proučavati i promjene glasa u različitim fazama ciklusa. Glas se može dovesti u vezu sa spolnim hormonima jer su na sluznici glasnica pronađeni receptori za spolne hormone. Istraživanja potvrđuju da je glas žene privlačniji u plodnom razdoblju, što ukazuje da može biti pokazatelj biološki važnih karakteristika. Međutim, u dosadašnjim istraživanjima nisu identificirane specifične akustičke značajke glasa koje se mijenjaju tijekom menstrualnog ciklusa i doprinose povećanju privlačnosti glasa u plodnom razdoblju. Pažnja istraživača je uglavnom usmjerena na spolno dimorfne značajke glasa po kojima se razlikuje muški i ženski glas. Tek manji broj istraživača ispituje promjene značajki kvalitete glasa, koje također mogu biti regulirane spolnim hormonima. Nadalje, uočene su različite metode identificiranja faza ciklusa, što otežava usporedbu dosadašnjih nalaza. Osim toga, analiza glasa se provodi na uzorcima izgovora samoglasnika i besmislenih fraza, koje nisu dio svakodnevne komunikacije. Polazeći od pretpostavke da promjene glasa tijekom menstrualnog ciklusa imaju adaptivnu funkciju privlačenja potencijalnog partnera, glas je potrebno proučavati upravo u tom kontekstu. Slijedom navedenog, cilj ovog istraživanja je bio ispitati promjene spolno dimorfnih značajki i značajki kvalitete glasa tijekom menstrualnog ciklusa. U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 48 sudionica s prirodnim ciklusom i 20 korisnica hormonalne kontracepcije. Glas sudionica je snimljen u tri faze menstrualnog ciklusa: u menstrualnoj, kasnoj folikularnoj i lutealnoj fazi. Faze ciklusa kod sudionica s prirodno reguliranim ciklusom su određene metodom brojanja dana ciklusa unaprijed uz potvrdu ovulacije testom za identificiranje naglog porasta razine luteinizirajućeg hormona. U svakoj fazi ciklusa glas je snimljen u kontrolnoj situaciji izgovaranja samoglasnika te u zadatku predstavljanja. Sudionice su se predstavljale muškarcima i ženama, čije se lice razlikovalo u stupnju muževnosti, odnosno ženstvenosti. Sudionice su također procjenjivale privlačnost osoba kojima su se predstavljale. Akustičkom analizom glasa su u računalnom programu Praat izračunate prosječne vrijednosti spolno dimorfnih značajki glasa te značajki kvalitete glasa. Rezultati analiza glasa u kontrolnoj situaciji pokazuju da je stabilnost glasa kod sudionica s prirodnim ciklusom nešto veća u fazama ciklusa karakteriziranim povišenim razinama spolnih hormona. Također je utvrđena veća ženstvenost glasa u plodnom razdoblju, dok su najniže vrijednosti intenziteta glasa dobivene u lutealnoj fazi ciklusa. Kod sudionica koje koriste hormonalnu kontracepciju nisu utvrđene promjene značajki glasa u različitim fazama ciklusa. Usporedbom glasa dviju skupina sudionica, pokazano je da sudionice s prirodnim ciklusom imaju generalno ženstveniji glas, što je posebice izraženo u plodnom periodu. Također, dobivena je veća kvaliteta njihovog glasa u menstrualnoj i kasnoj folikularnoj fazi. Rezultati analize glasa u situacijama predstavljanja drugim osobama tijekom različitih faza ciklusa pokazuju da su sudionice s prirodnim ciklusom imale tendenciju predstavljanja ženstvenijim glasom i glasnije ženstvenom nego muževnom muškarcu u svim fazama ciklusa. Također su se u plodnom razdoblju predstavljale glasnije ženstvenom muškarcu nego ženi, a sudionice koje su bile u vezi su producirale i nešto ženstveniji glas. U skupini sudionica koje su bile u vezi je također utvrđena nešto niža ženstvenost glas u situaciji predstavljanja muževnom muškarcu nego ženi, ali samo u lutealnoj fazi ciklusa. Navedeni nalazi se mogu objasniti utvrđenom većom privlačnosti ženstvenih muškaraca u ovom istraživanju te ukazuju na mehanizam privlačenja potencijalnog partnera, koji je kod sudionica u vezi bio izraženiji u plodnom razdoblju. Nadalje, promjene minimalne fundamentalne frekvencije glasa tijekom menstrualnog ciklusa pokazuju da su se sudionice u plodnom razdoblju ženstvenoj ženi predstavljale dominantnijim glasom, dok male promjene varijabiliteta fundamentalne frekvencije ukazuju da su povećavale privlačnost vlastitog glasa u plodnom periodu. Ovi su rezultati objašnjeni aktivacijom mehanizma unutarspolnog natjecanja. U skupini sudionica koje koriste hormonalnu kontracepciju generalno nisu utvrđene promjene glasa u situacijama predstavljanja muževnim muškarcima i ženama između različitih faza ciklusa. Dobiveni nalazi ukazuju da su promjene opažene u skupini sudionica s prirodnim ciklusom regulirane fluktuacijom spolnih hormona tijekom menstrualnog ciklusa. Uzimajući u obzir dobivene promjene spolno dimorfnih značajki i značajki kvalitete glasa, u zaključku se može kazati da dobiveni rezultati ovog istraživanja upućuju na važnost ispitivanja glasa unutar definiranog socijalnog konteksta.Previous studies showed various changes in women's behavior across the menstrual cycle. During their fertile period, women reported an increased preference for male masculine traits, extra-pair sexual interests and fantasies, tendency to flirt with an attractive man, to wear more revealing clothes and attractive make-up. Beside changes in behavior, studies showed changes in some physical characteristics, with female face, odour, and gait being more attractive in the fertile period. It is assumed that these changes represent an adaptation with the purpose of finding an adequate partner and enhancing the genetic quality of the offspring. It is proposed that these changes are regulated by the fluctuations of sex hormone levels across the cycle. Receptors for sex hormones have been found on the vocal folds, thus suggesting a link between hormone levels and vocal fold function. Increased estrogen levels result in thickening of the laryngeal mucosa and increased mucus production, while increased progesterone levels result in drying of the laryngeal mucosa. These physiological changes might cause changes in voice production, as well as in voice quality and perceived attractiveness. Indeed, previous studies showed that attractiveness ratings of women's voices varied across the menstrual cycle, with higher ratings for voice recordings made in fertile phase. It was also found that women with feminine faces have more feminine and attractive voices. Moreover, studies showed that women tend to change their voice when interacting with an attractive man. This implies that voice is a valuable source of biologically important information, such as women's fertility status and reproductive value. However, attempts to identify specific acoustic characteristics that convey that information produced mixed results. There are several methodological aspects to consider in explaining inconsistent findings. Most of the researchers focused on investigating changes of sexually dimorphic vocal features, such as fundamental frequency and its variability, while less focus has been placed on assessing features that signal vocal quality, such as perturbation measures (jitter and shimmer). Furthermore, the methods used to identify cycle phases vary between studies, and most researchers relied on self-report methods to identify the fertile cycle phase. In addition, in most of the studies, women's voice was recorded during read speech or phonation of vowel, numbers, and sentences with no context. Those voice samples cannot represent a natural variation of vocal characteristics that could be present in everyday communication. Considering this, vocal changes across the cycle should be investigated during real or simulated communication. Assuming that vocal changes across the ovulatory cycle represent an adaptation to attract potential mates, voice changes should be explored in a social context in which they actually might occur – mating context. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate sexually dimorphic vocal features and quality of voice during simulated interaction of women and other men and women. Interaction was simulated in different phases of the menstrual cycle among women with natural cycle and users of hormonal contraceptives. The voices of 48 women with natural cycle and 20 users of hormonal contraception were obtained in menstrual, late-follicular and luteal phase. Cycle phases were identified by counting method and luteinizing hormone surge confirmation in the mid-cycle. In each cycle phase, voice was recorded in a neutral situation of vowel production. In order to examine vocal changes in a simulated social interaction, women had a task to introduce themselves and leave a voice message for masculine and feminine versions of prototypical male and female faces, which were presented on a screen in a random order. After they recorded four messages, they rated the attractiveness of prototype faces. Voice samples were analyzed using Praat, in which sexually dimorphic vocal characteristics, as well as vocal quality was measured. With regard to the control situation and vowel recordings, the results showed greater vocal stability (lower fundamental frequency variability) among women with natural cycle in cycle phases with higher sex hormone levels (late-follicular and luteal phase), compared to the menstrual phase. Based on the changes in minimum fundamental frequency values, women had more feminine voice in the late-follicular phase compared to the rest of the cycle. In addition, voice intensity was the lowest in the luteal phase, probably because of the lower activation levels in a cycle phase with high levels of progesterone. Among users of hormonal contraception, there were no voice changes across the cycle. Comparison of the two groups of women revealed that the natural cycle group had higher formant dispersion. Naturally cycling women also had higher values of harmonics to noise ratio, but only in menstrual and late-follicular phase, which implies greater vocal quality. Absence of differences between the groups in luteal phase might be due to the similarity of their hormonal profiles in this phase. Analysis of voice recordings obtained during a message recording to feminine and masculine man and woman showed that women with natural cycle had a tendency to speak with more feminine voice (higher fundamental frequency) and a greater voice intensity when leaving a message for feminine, compared to masculine man. This result was found regardless of the cycle phase. Moreover, women had greater voice intensity in fertile period when leaving a message for a feminine man, compared to feminine women. In the same phase, women who were in a relationship had a bit higher fundamental frequency in the same situation. Greater vocal femininity and intensity directed to a feminine man is in line with the attractiveness ratings obtained in this study, which showed that feminine man was more attractive than masculine. These results imply vocal modulation with the purpose of attracting a potential mate, which was more pronounced in a fertile period among naturally cycling women who were in a relationship. Furthermore, changes in the minimum fundamental frequency showed that women in a fertile period produced less feminine voice directed to feminine woman, compared to the rest of the menstrual cycle. This might imply dominance signaling to an attractive rival when the probability of conception is high. Moreover, small changes in fundamental frequency variability showed that women increased attractiveness of their own voice when leaving a message for an attractive feminine woman in fertile period. These results could also be explained in the context of intrasexual competition. Among users of hormonal contraception, no vocal changes in different cycle phases were found. Results obtained in this study imply that voice changes among women with natural cycle are regulated by sex hormone levels. To sum up, hormonal regulation of vocal changes in a control situation might be related to the direct effects of hormones on the vocal cords, or indirect effects of hormones on activation and arousal. These results are in line with the proposed proximal causes of vocal changes across the menstrual cycle. Moreover, vocal changes during message recordings for feminine and masculine man and women in various cycle phases imply a regulating role of the sex hormones in activating behaviors directed towards the potential mate and the potential rival. Those behaviors include voice modulation in a way to appear more attractive or dominant. In addition, these behaviors appear to be more pronounced among women who were in a relationship. The results of this study also point out the importance of investigating vocal changes across the cycle in a defined social context

Relationships Between Acoustic Characteristics of Female Voice and Self-Reported Personality Traits

Dosadašnja istraživanja pokazuju da ljudski glas ima važnu ulogu u prijenosu raznih karakteristika govornika, poput spola, dobi i tjelesne visine. Postoji i povezanost između raznih značajki glasa i percepcije osobina ličnosti. Primjerice, viši glas povezan je s percepcijom femininosti, a dublji s percepcijom dominacije. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je ispitati odnos karakteristika glasa i osobina ličnosti kod žena, pri čemu je pažnja usmjerena na samoprocjene maskulinosti, femininosti, dominacije i afilijacije. Sudjelovalo je 48 žena, čiji je izgovor samoglasnika /a/ snimljen tri puta. Izračunom prosječnih vrijednosti značajki glasa utvrđeno je da visina glasa nije povezana sa samoprocjenama osobina ličnosti. S druge strane, varijabilitet visine glasa negativno je povezan s maskulinosti te pozitivno s femininosti. Nadalje, shimmer je pozitivno, a omjer harmoničnoga tona i šuma negativno povezan s maskulinosti. Daljnje regresijske analize potvrdile su značajan doprinos varijabiliteta visine glasa i shimmera u predviđanju individualnih razlika u maskulinosti. Osim interpretacije rezultata u kontekstu nalaza ranijih istraživanja, u radu se raspravlja o smjernicama za poboljšanje metodologije budućih istraživanja.Previous studies have shown that human voice has an important role in communicating different traits, by implying speaker\u27s sex, age, physical height, etc. Studies have also found correlations between various vocal characteristics and perceived personality traits. For example, there is evidence that higher pitch is positively related to perceived femininity, while lower pitch is related to perceived dominance. The aim of the present study was to investigate those relationships between voice and personality, by focusing on women\u27s self- -reports of masculinity, femininity, dominance and affiliation. 48 women were recorded three times during vowel /a/ production. After acoustic analysis, it was found that voice pitch was not related to personality traits. On the contrary, pitch variability was negatively related to masculinity, and positively to femininity. Furthermore, shimmer was positively, and harmonics to noise ratio negatively related to self- -reported masculinity. Further regression analyses confirmed contribution of pitch variability and shimmer in explaining individual differences in masculinity. Besides the interpretation of the results in the context of previous findings, we discuss possible directions for future research in order to improve research methodology

Politicians’ Facial Width-to-Height Ratio and their Electoral Success

Prijašnja su istraživanja pokazala da prilikom glasovanja na političkim izborima birači uzimaju u obzir fizičke karakteristike političkih kandidata. Primjerice, birači češće glasaju za političare koje na temelju lica percipiraju kao kompetentnije. Također, kandidati koji izgledaju dominantnije i muževnije imaju veću prednost kod konzervativnijih birača. Budući da se omjer širine i visine lica pokazao prediktorom procjena muževnosti i dominantnosti, cilj je ovoga istraživanja bio ispitati doprinos navedenoga omjera u predviđanju ishoda stvarnih političkih izbora. U tu je svrhu korištena baza digitalnih fotografija lica političkih kandidata za Kongres (Senat i Zastupnički dom) i mjesto guvernera Sjedinjenih Američkih Država, a koji se mogu podijeliti u dvije kategorije ovisno o pripadnosti Demokratskoj, odnosno Republikanskoj stranci. Na temelju prikupljenih fotografija izračunani su omjeri širine i visine lica za ukupno 259 kandidata i 52 kandidatkinje. Nizom linearnih i binarnih regresijskih analiza, uz kontrolu spola kandidata, pripadnosti stranci, tipa izbora te vrste kandidature (reizbor ili prva kandidatura), nije utvrđeno da omjer širine i visine lica predviđa ishod izbora i proporciju osvojenih glasova. U pokušaju objašnjenja neočekivanih nalaza u obzir je uzeto nekoliko aspekata s ciljem pružanja smjernica za buduća istraživanja.Previous studies have shown that during the election process voters rely on different physical characteristics of political candidates. For example, politicians who are perceived as more competent have greater electoral success. In addition, candidates who look more dominant and masculine are preferred among conservative voters. Since facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) is assumed to be a predictor of perceived masculinity and dominance, this study aimed to investigate the contribution of fWHR in predicting the outcome of the real political elections. We used a digital database containing photographs of political candidates for the United States Senate (United States Congress and United States House of Representatives) and gubernatorial elections, representing Republican and Democratic Party. fWHR was calculated for the 259 male and 52 female candidates. Across several linear and binary regressions, with the control of the candidate’s sex, party affiliation, election type and candidacy type (incumbency or first candidacy), fWHR predicted neither the election outcome nor the vote share. Several methodological aspects have been discussed to explain these unexpected findings and to give guidance for future research

Reproductive Strategies and Jealousy in Men and Women

Brojna istraživanja pokazuju da su muškarci osjetljiviji na seksualnu nevjeru partnerice, dok su žene osjetljivije na emocionalnu nevjeru partnera. No manji broj istraživanja posvetio je pažnju ispitivanju razlika u ljubomori unutar svakoga spola. Kada je riječ o reproduktivnim strategijama, istraživanja su pokazala veću restriktivnost muškaraca u usporedbi sa ženama. Međutim, polazeći od evolucijskih postavki, može se pretpostaviti prisutnost kratkoročne i dugoročne strategije kod oba spola. Cilj je ovog istraživanja ispitati razlikuju li se restriktivni i nerestriktivni muškarci i žene u ljubomori na emocionalnu i seksualnu nevjeru. Ukupno 526 sudionika heteroseksualne orijentacije procjenjivalo je intenzitet ljubomore u hipotetskim situacijama seksualne i emocionalne nevjere te ispunilo Upitnik socioseksualne orijentacije (Kardum, Gračanin i Hudek-Knežević, 2006). Na osnovi rezultata u upitniku sudionici su podijeljeni u skupine restriktivnih i nerestriktivnih. Rezultati pokazuju veću ljubomoru muškaraca na seksualnu nevjeru i žena na emocionalnu nevjeru. U usporedbi s nerestriktivnim, restriktivni muškarci pokazali su veću ljubomoru na seksualnu nevjeru. Žene su osjetljivije na emocionalnu nevjeru, neovisno o reproduktivnoj strategiji. Prednosti i nedostatci obiju strategija te njihov efekt na ljubomoru interpretirani su u kontekstu evolucijskog razvoja mehanizama pronalaženja i zadržavanja partnera.Previous studies showed that men are more sensitive to sexual infidelity, while women are more sensitive to emotional infidelity. However, only a few of them investigated differences in jealousy within each sex. Moreover, studies of sex differences in reproductive strategies showed that women are more restrictive in comparison to men. According to evolutionary psychology, both long-term and short-term strategies could be found within each sex. The aim of this study is to investigate differences in sensitivity to sexual and emotional infidelity between restrictive and nonrestrictive men and women. 526 subjects took part in this study. They estimated the intensity of jealousy in hypothetical situations of sexual and emotional infidelity. Furthermore, sociosexual orientation was assessed using the Croatian adaptation of Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (Kardum, Gračanin, & Hudek-Knežević, 2006). Based on the results, subjects were divided into the groups of restrictive and nonrestrictive individuals. The results showed greater sensitivity to sexual infidelity in men and emotional infidelity in women. In comparison to nonrestrictive men, restrictive men showed greater sensitivity to sexual infidelity. Women are more sensitive to emotional infidelity, regardless of their reproductive strategy. Advantages and disadvantages of both strategies, as well as their effect on jealousy, could be interpreted within the context of evolutionary development of mechanisms for partner selection and mate guarding

Validation of the Short Version (TLS-15) of the Triangular Love Scale (TLS-45) Across 37 Languages

Love is a phenomenon that occurs across the world and affects many aspects of human life, including the choice of, and process of bonding with, a romantic partner. Thus, developing a reliable and valid measure of love experiences is crucial. One of the most popular tools to quantify love is Sternberg’s 45-item Triangular Love Scale (TLS-45), which measures three love components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. However, our literature review reveals that most studies (64%) use a broad variety of shortened versions of the TLS-45. Here, aiming to achieve scientific consensus and improve the reliability, comparability, and generalizability of results across studies, we developed a short version of the scale—the TLS-15—comprised of 15 items with 5-point, rather than 9-point, response scales. In Study 1 (N = 7,332), we re-analyzed secondary data from a large-scale multinational study that validated the original TLS-45 to establish whether the scale could be truncated. In Study 2 (N = 307), we provided evidence for the three-factor structure of the TLS-15 and its reliability. Study 3 (N = 413) confirmed convergent validity and test–retest stability of the TLS-15. Study 4 (N = 60,311) presented a large-scale validation across 37 linguistic versions of the TLS-15 on a cross-cultural sample spanning every continent of the globe. The overall results provide support for the reliability, validity, and cross-cultural invariance of the TLS-15, which can be used as a measure of love components—either separately or jointly as a three-factor measure

Predictors of Enhancing Human Physical Attractiveness: Data from 93 Countries

People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending \u3e10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, right-wing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complementary perspectives

Two-Dimensional Structure of the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory and Its Personality Correlates

Sociosexuality refers to individual differences in willingness to engage in casual sex without emotional involvement with the partner. One of the most popular measures of sociosexuality is the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI) that was initially constructed as a one-dimensional measure. Although a multidimensional approach has been shown to be more informative, one-dimensional SOI scoring is still used. In this article, we replicate previous findings, using confirmatory procedures, that two-dimensional SOI scoring could be more adequate. Further, we demonstrate the advantages of a two-dimensional SOI structure in investigating relationships between sociosexuality and its personality correlates. These results could provide an incentive for a consensus of using multidimensional measures of sociosexuality

Voice in different phases of menstrual cycle among naturally cycling women and users of hormonal contraceptives

<div><p>Previous studies have shown changes in women's behavior and physical appearance between the non-fertile and fertile phases of the menstrual cycle. It is assumed that these changes are regulated by fluctuations in sex hormone levels across the cycle. Receptors for sex hormones have been found on the vocal folds, suggesting a link between hormone levels and vocal fold function, which might cause changes in voice production. However, attempts to identify changes in voice production across the menstrual cycle have produced mixed results. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate changes in sexually dimorphic vocal characteristics and quality of women’s voices in different phases of the cycle and to compare these with users of monophasic hormonal contraception. Voice samples (vowel phonation) of 44 naturally cycling women were obtained in the menstrual, late follicular (confirmed by LH surge) and luteal phases, and in 20 hormonal contraceptive users across equivalent stages of the monthly cycle. Results showed that voices of naturally cycling women had higher minimum pitch in the late follicular phase compared with the other phases. In addition, voice intensity was at its lowest in the luteal phase. In contrast, there were no voice changes across the cycle in hormonal contraceptive users. Comparison between the two groups of women revealed that the naturally cycling group had higher minimum pitch in the fertile phase and higher harmonics to noise ratio in the menstrual phase. In general, present results support the assumption that sex hormones might have an effect on voice function. These results, coupled with mixed findings in previous studies, suggest that vocal changes in relation to hormonal fluctuation are subtle, at least during vowel production. Future studies should explore voice changes in a defined social context and with more free-flowing speech.</p></div

Beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories predict lower level of compliance with the preventive measures both directly and indirectly by lowering trust in government medical officials

The COVID-19 pandemic represents a global health crisis, making compliance with governmental policies and public health advice crucial in decreasing transmission rates. At the same time, we are faced with the rapid spread of COVID-19 conspiracy theories. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the predictive power of COVID-19 conspiracy theories in explaining the level of compliance with official COVID-19 guidelines, by including mediating roles of pseudoscientific information beliefs and trust in government officials. A total of 1882 participants provided sociodemographic information and completed all measures in the study. Multiple mediation analysis revealed a direct negative effect of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs on the compliance with the preventive measures. In addition, conspiracy beliefs were indirectly associated with compliance via trust in government officials. The present study builds upon emerging research showing that conspiracy beliefs have potentially significant social consequences. Practical implications of these findings are further discussed