The pathogenic mechanism of the Mycobacterium ulcerans virulence factor, mycolactone, depends on blockade of protein translocation into the ER.

Infection with Mycobacterium ulcerans is characterised by tissue necrosis and immunosuppression due to mycolactone, the necessary and sufficient virulence factor for Buruli ulcer disease pathology. Many of its effects are known to involve down-regulation of specific proteins implicated in important cellular processes, such as immune responses and cell adhesion. We have previously shown mycolactone completely blocks the production of LPS-dependent proinflammatory mediators post-transcriptionally. Using polysome profiling we now demonstrate conclusively that mycolactone does not prevent translation of TNF, IL-6 and Cox-2 mRNAs in macrophages. Instead, it inhibits the production of these, along with nearly all other (induced and constitutive) proteins that transit through the ER. This is due to a blockade of protein translocation and subsequent degradation of aberrantly located protein. Several lines of evidence support this transformative explanation of mycolactone function. First, cellular TNF and Cox-2 can be once more detected if the action of the 26S proteasome is inhibited concurrently. Second, restored protein is found in the cytosol, indicating an inability to translocate. Third, in vitro translation assays show mycolactone prevents the translocation of TNF and other proteins into the ER. This is specific as the insertion of tail-anchored proteins into the ER is unaffected showing that the ER remains structurally intact. Fourth, metabolic labelling reveals a near-complete loss of glycosylated and secreted proteins from treated cells, whereas cytosolic proteins are unaffected. Notably, the profound lack of glycosylated and secreted protein production is apparent in a range of different disease-relevant cell types. These studies provide a new mechanism underlying mycolactone's observed pathological activities both in vitro and in vivo. Mycolactone-dependent inhibition of protein translocation into the ER not only explains the deficit of innate cytokines, but also the loss of membrane receptors, adhesion molecules and T-cell cytokines that drive the aetiology of Buruli ulcer

Inhibition of Sec61-dependent translocation by mycolactone uncouples the integrated stress response from ER stress, driving cytotoxicity via translational activation of ATF4

Mycolactone is the exotoxin virulence factor of Mycobacterium ulcerans that causes the neglected tropical disease Buruli ulcer. We recently showed it to be a broad spectrum inhibitor of Sec61-dependent co-translational translocation of proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). An outstanding question is the molecular pathway linking this to its known cytotoxicity. We have now used translational profiling to better understand the reprogramming that occurs in cells exposed to mycolactone. Gene ontology identified enrichment in genes involved in cellular response to stress, and apoptosis signalling among those showing enhanced translation. Validation of these results supports a mechanism by which mycolactone activates an integrated stress response meditated by phosphorylation of eIF2α via multiple kinases (PERK, GCN, PKR) without activation of the ER stress sensors IRE1 or ATF6. The response therefore uncouples the integrated stress response from ER stress, and features translational and transcriptional modes of genes expression that feature the key regulatory transcription factor ATF4. Emphasising the importance of this uncoupled response in cytotoxicity, downstream activation of this pathway is abolished in cells expressing mycolactone-resistant Sec61α variants. Using multiple genetic and biochemical approaches, we demonstrate that eIF2α phosphorylation is responsible for mycolactone-dependent translation attenuation, which initially protects cells from cell death. However, chronic activation without stress remediation enhances autophagy and apoptosis of cells by a pathway facilitated by ATF4 and CHOP. Our findings demonstrate that priming events at the ER can result in the sensing of stress within different cellular compartments

The extracellular heparan sulfatase SULF2 limits myeloid IFNβ signaling and Th17 responses in inflammatory arthritis

Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans are important regulators of cellular responses to soluble mediators such as chemokines, cytokines and growth factors. We profiled changes in expression of genes encoding HS core proteins, biosynthesis enzymes and modifiers during macrophage polarisation, and found that the most highly regulated gene was Sulf2, an extracellular HS 6-O-sulfatase that was markedly downregulated in response to pro-inflammatory stimuli. We then generated Sulf2+/− bone marrow chimeric mice and examined inflammatory responses in antigen-induced arthritis, as a model of rheumatoid arthritis. Resolution of inflammation was impaired in myeloid Sulf2+/− chimeras, with elevated joint swelling and increased abundance of pro-arthritic Th17 cells in synovial tissue. Transcriptomic and in vitro analyses indicated that Sulf2 deficiency increased type I interferon signaling in bone marrow-derived macrophages, leading to elevated expression of the Th17-inducing cytokine IL6. This establishes that dynamic remodeling of HS by Sulf2 limits type I interferon signaling in macrophages, and so protects against Th17-driven pathology

Mycolactone-dependent depletion of endothelial cell thrombomodulin is strongly associated with fibrin deposition in Buruli ulcer lesions

A well-known histopathological feature of diseased skin in Buruli ulcer (BU) is coagulative necrosis caused by the Mycobacterium ulcerans macrolide exotoxin mycolactone. Since the underlying mechanism is not known, we have investigated the effect of mycolactone on endothelial cells, focussing on the expression of surface anticoagulant molecules involved in the protein C anticoagulant pathway. Congenital deficiencies in this natural anticoagulant pathway are known to induce thrombotic complications such as purpura fulimans and spontaneous necrosis. Mycolactone profoundly decreased thrombomodulin (TM) expression on the surface of human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HDMVEC) at doses as low as 2ng/ml and as early as 8hrs after exposure. TM activates protein C by altering thrombin's substrate specificity, and exposure of HDMVEC to mycolactone for 24 hours resulted in an almost complete loss of the cells' ability to produce activated protein C. Loss of TM was shown to be due to a previously described mechanism involving mycolactone-dependent blockade of Sec61 translocation that results in proteasome-dependent degradation of newly synthesised ER-transiting proteins. Indeed, depletion from cells determined by live-cell imaging of cells stably expressing a recombinant TM-GFP fusion protein occurred at the known turnover rate. In order to determine the relevance of these findings to BU disease, immunohistochemistry of punch biopsies from 40 BU lesions (31 ulcers, nine plaques) was performed. TM abundance was profoundly reduced in the subcutis of 78% of biopsies. Furthermore, it was confirmed that fibrin deposition is a common feature of BU lesions, particularly in the necrotic areas. These findings indicate that there is decreased ability to control thrombin generation in BU skin. Mycolactone's effects on normal endothelial cell function, including its ability to activate the protein C anticoagulant pathway are strongly associated with this. Fibrin-driven tisischemia could contribute to the development of the tissue necrosis seen in BU lesions

The pathogenic mechanism of the Mycobacterium ulcerans virulence factor, mycolactone, depends on blockade of protein translocation into the ER.

Infection with Mycobacterium ulcerans is characterised by tissue necrosis and immunosuppression due to mycolactone, the necessary and sufficient virulence factor for Buruli ulcer disease pathology. Many of its effects are known to involve down-regulation of specific proteins implicated in important cellular processes, such as immune responses and cell adhesion. We have previously shown mycolactone completely blocks the production of LPS-dependent proinflammatory mediators post-transcriptionally. Using polysome profiling we now demonstrate conclusively that mycolactone does not prevent translation of TNF, IL-6 and Cox-2 mRNAs in macrophages. Instead, it inhibits the production of these, along with nearly all other (induced and constitutive) proteins that transit through the ER. This is due to a blockade of protein translocation and subsequent degradation of aberrantly located protein. Several lines of evidence support this transformative explanation of mycolactone function. First, cellular TNF and Cox-2 can be once more detected if the action of the 26S proteasome is inhibited concurrently. Second, restored protein is found in the cytosol, indicating an inability to translocate. Third, in vitro translation assays show mycolactone prevents the translocation of TNF and other proteins into the ER. This is specific as the insertion of tail-anchored proteins into the ER is unaffected showing that the ER remains structurally intact. Fourth, metabolic labelling reveals a near-complete loss of glycosylated and secreted proteins from treated cells, whereas cytosolic proteins are unaffected. Notably, the profound lack of glycosylated and secreted protein production is apparent in a range of different disease-relevant cell types. These studies provide a new mechanism underlying mycolactone's observed pathological activities both in vitro and in vivo. Mycolactone-dependent inhibition of protein translocation into the ER not only explains the deficit of innate cytokines, but also the loss of membrane receptors, adhesion molecules and T-cell cytokines that drive the aetiology of Buruli ulcer

Inhibition of Sec61-dependent translocation by mycolactone uncouples the integrated stress response from ER stress, driving cytotoxicity via translational activation of ATF4.

Mycolactone is the exotoxin virulence factor of Mycobacterium ulcerans that causes the neglected tropical disease Buruli ulcer. We recently showed it to be a broad spectrum inhibitor of Sec61-dependent co-translational translocation of proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). An outstanding question is the molecular pathway linking this to its known cytotoxicity. We have now used translational profiling to better understand the reprogramming that occurs in cells exposed to mycolactone. Gene ontology identified enrichment in genes involved in cellular response to stress, and apoptosis signalling among those showing enhanced translation. Validation of these results supports a mechanism by which mycolactone activates an integrated stress response meditated by phosphorylation of eIF2α via multiple kinases (PERK, GCN, PKR) without activation of the ER stress sensors IRE1 or ATF6. The response therefore uncouples the integrated stress response from ER stress, and features translational and transcriptional modes of genes expression that feature the key regulatory transcription factor ATF4. Emphasising the importance of this uncoupled response in cytotoxicity, downstream activation of this pathway is abolished in cells expressing mycolactone-resistant Sec61α variants. Using multiple genetic and biochemical approaches, we demonstrate that eIF2α phosphorylation is responsible for mycolactone-dependent translation attenuation, which initially protects cells from cell death. However, chronic activation without stress remediation enhances autophagy and apoptosis of cells by a pathway facilitated by ATF4 and CHOP. Our findings demonstrate that priming events at the ER can result in the sensing of stress within different cellular compartments

Mycolactone enhances the Ca2+ leakage from endoplasmic reticulum by trapping Sec61 translocons in a Ca2+ permeable state

The Mycobacterium ulcerans exotoxin, mycolactone, is an inhibitor of co-translational translocation via the Sec61 complex. Mycolactone has previously been shown to bind to, and alter the structure of, the major translocon subunit Sec61α, and change its interaction with ribosome nascent chain complexes. In addition to its function in protein translocation into the ER, Sec61 also plays a key role in cellular Ca2+ homeostasis, acting as a leak channel between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and cytosol. Here, we have analysed the effect of mycolactone on cytosolic and ER Ca2+ levels using compartment-specific sensors. We also used molecular docking analysis to explore potential interaction sites for mycolactone on translocons in various states. These results show that mycolactone enhances the leak of Ca2+ ions via the Sec61 translocon, resulting in a slow but substantial depletion of ER Ca2+. This leak was dependent on mycolactone binding to Sec61α because resistance mutations in this protein completely ablated the increase. Molecular docking supports the existence of a mycolactone-binding transient inhibited state preceding translocation and suggests mycolactone may also bind Sec61α in its idle state. We propose that delayed ribosomal release after translation termination and/or translocon “breathing” during rapid transitions between the idle and intermediate-inhibited states allow for transient Ca2+ leak, and mycolactone’s stabilisation of the latter underpins the phenotype observed

Mycolactone causes degradation of TNF and Cox-2 by the 26S proteasome in the cytosol.

<p>RAW264.7 cells were incubated +/−125 ng/ml mycolactone (MYC) or 5 µg/ml tunicamycin (TUN) for 1 hr and stimulated with LPS for 4 hrs. In certain samples 5 µM PSI was added 2 hrs after the LPS stimulation. This allowed time for the proteasome-dependent activation of NFκB required for transcriptional activation to occur before proteasome activity was inhibited (see text). A. Supernatant TNF levels from cells treated as above, measured by ELISA (mean±SEM). B. Western blot of cell lysates (0.5×10⁶ cell equivalents/lane), the dotted line separates samples with and without PSI treatment for ease of interpretation. C. Signal intensity was quantified by ImageJ analysis of non-saturated blots and normalised to LPS+TUN (not shown). Values are mean intensity for each lane±SEM of 3 independent experiments. For Cox-2 this is the unglycosylated mol wt band only (UG Cox-2). *, P<0.05; ***, P<0.001. D. Western blot of cytosolic and digitonin-resistant membrane fractions from cells treated with PSI as described above. All data representative of (or pooled from, C) 3 independent experiments. G; glycosylated Cox-2 (∼80 kDa), UG; unglycosylated Cox-2 (∼69 kDa), pro-TNF (∼26 kDa), GAPDH (∼40 KDa), GCS1; glucosidase I (∼92 KDa). Open arrowheads indicate cells treated with mycolactone but not PSI. Closed arrowheads indicate cells treated with mycolactone and PSI.</p