Astrocyte dysfunction and neuronal network hyperactivity in a CRISPR engineered pluripotent stem cell model of frontotemporal dementia

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is the second most prevalent type of early-onset dementia and up to 40% of cases are familial forms. One of the genes mutated in patients is CHMP2B, which encodes a protein found in a complex important for maturation of late endosomes, an essential process for recycling membrane proteins through the endolysosomal system. Here, we have generated a CHMP2B-mutated human embryonic stem cell line using genome editing with the purpose to create a human in vitro FTD disease model. To date, most studies have focused on neuronal alterations; however, we present a new co-culture system in which neurons and astrocytes are independently generated from human embryonic stem cells and combined in co-cultures. With this approach, we have identified alterations in the endolysosomal system of FTD astrocytes, a higher capacity of astrocytes to uptake and respond to glutamate, and a neuronal network hyperactivity as well as excessive synchronization. Overall, our data indicates that astrocyte alterations precede neuronal impairments and could potentially trigger neuronal network changes, indicating the important and specific role of astrocytes in disease development

Impact du métabolisme du glucose et de la glutamine dans la différenciation des cellules souches hématopoïétiques vers la lignée érythroïde

Les cellules souches hématopoïétiques (CSH) possèdent deux propriétés fondamentales : l'auto-renouvellement et la capacité de se différencier en lignées hématopoïétiques de tout type. Les CSH se maintiennent dans la moelle osseuse et se renouvellent par division asymétrique. En revanche, les divisions symétriques caractérisent les cellules qui s'engagent dans la différenciation. L'environnement pauvre en oxygène de la moelle osseuse favorise la glycolyse anaérobique et l'oxydation des acides gras, préservant, respectivement, la quiescence et les divisions asymétriques. Que l'engagement des CSH vers la différenciation lymphoïde, myéloïde ou érythroïde dépende ou entraîne une reprogrammation métabolique n'est toujours pas connu. En effet, de nombreuses études ont montré que cytokines et contacts cellulaires sont indispensables pour l'engagement des CSH vers une lignée donnée, alors que l'impact potentiel des nutriments et du métabolisme sur ce processus reste très peu étudié. La différenciation est associée à une prolifération qui nécessite des besoins métaboliques accrus pouvant être supportés par diverses sources d'énergie, telles que le glucose, les acides gras, le lactate ou la glutamine. Le glucose et la glutamine sont des précurseurs de l'ATP, des lipides et des nucléotides. Toutefois, leurs contributions relatives aux voies métaboliques contrôlant l'engagement des CSH n'ont pas été évaluées. Pour autant, nos études ainsi que celles menées par d'autres laboratoires ont montré que l'expression du transporteur de glucose Glut1 n'augmente qu'au cours des dernières étapes de la différenciation érythroïde, suggérant l'implication potentiel d'autres nutriments dans la régulation des étapes précoces de l'engagement vers la voie érythroïde. Ainsi, mon travail de thèse a consisté à déterminer si la disponibilité et l'utilisation des nutriments régulent la différenciation des CSH vers la lignée érythroïde. De fait, j'ai montré que le transporteur de glutamine ASCT2 est hautement exprimé dans les CSH et que la répression d'ASCT2 ou le blocage du métabolisme de la glutamine empêche la différenciation érythroïde des CSH, les détournant vers la voie myéloïde, même en présence d'érythropoïétine. Dans ces conditions, nous avons montré que la différenciation érythroïde ne pouvait pas être restaurée par l'ajout d'intermédiaires du cycle de Krebs, alors que qu'elle était dépendante de la biosynthèse de novo de nucléotides. Étonnamment, le 2-désoxyglucose (2-DG), un analogue du glucose inhibant la glycolyse, accélérait l'érythropoïèse. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence in vivo, en condition de stress érythropoïétique, des influences différentes du catabolisme de la glutamine et celui du glucose dans la modulation de l'érythropoïèse. Afin de mieux élucider les mécanismes par lesquels la glutamine module la différenciation érythroïde des CSH, nous avons étudié les voies métaboliques qu'elle emprunte. Des expériences de suivi de la glutamine marquée ont montré que l'entrée de la glutamine dans le cycle de Krebs est requise pour une érythropoïèse efficace. Par contre, nous avons montré que la synthèse de novo des nucléotides était l'étape limitante de la différenciation érythroïde. De plus, nous avons observé que la différenciation érythroïde accélérée en présence du 2-DG était associée à une augmentation importante du niveau des pentoses phosphates, précurseurs des nucléotides. Ainsi, l'utilisation de la voie des pentoses phosphates par le glucose, plutôt que la glycolyse, était essentielle pour l'érythropoïèse. En conclusion, mon travail de thèse a montré que la production de nucléotides via le métabolisme coordonné du glucose et de la glutamine est la condition sine qua non pour l'engagement des CSH vers la lignée érythroïde.Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) possess two fundamental characteristics; self-renewal capacity and the ability to give rise to all blood cell lineages. Before their commitment to a specific lineage, these cells are maintained in a quiescent state in the bone marrow. Asymmetric division is essential for the maintenance of the stem cell compartment while symmetric division results in HSC differentiation. The hypoxic environment of the bone marrow is conducive to anaerobic glycolysis and fatty acid oxidation, preserving stem cell quiescence and asymmetric division, respectively. However, it is not known whether the commitment of an HSC to a lymphoid, myeloid or erythroid lineage fate, is regulated by a metabolic switch. Indeed, while much research has shown a critical role for cytokines and cell-cell contacts in the commitment of HSCs to distinct hematopoietic lineages, the possibility that nutrient entry and metabolism may contribute to this process was not considered until very recently. Cell differentiation is associated with proliferation resulting in increased metabolic requirements that can be met by energy sources such as glucose, fatty acids, lactate, or glutamine, amongst others. While glucose and glutamine are both precursors for the production of ATP, lipids and nucleotides, their relative contributions to metabolic pathways driving HSC lineage commitment have not been evaluated. Interestingly, we and others previously found that the Glut1 glucose transporter is highly upregulated only during the final mitoses of HSC-driven erythroid differentiation, suggesting that other nutrients may regulate early stages of erythroid lineage commitment. During my PhD, I was interested in determining whether nutrient availability and utilization regulate HSC differentiation to the erythroid lineage. Interestingly, I found that the ASCT2 glutamine transporter is expressed at high levels on HSCs. Downregulation of ASCT2 or blocking glutamine metabolism abrogated erythroid differentiation of HSCs and diverted erythropoietin-signaled HSCs towards a myeloid fate. Under conditions where glutamine utilization was blocked, erythroid differentiation was not restored by directly replenishing the tricarboxylic acid cycle but rather, was dependent on de novo nucleotide biosynthesis. Surprisingly, 2-deoxyglucose, a glucose analogue that inhibits glycolysis, enhanced erythropoiesis. Glutamine and glucose catabolism also differentially modulated erythropoiesis in vivo, under stress conditions. To better elucidate the mechanism(s) via which glutamine supports the erythroid lineage specification of HSCs, we evaluated the metabolic pathways fueled by glutamine. Carbon/nitrogen-labeled glutamine tracing experiments showed that the rate-limiting step in EPO-induced erythroid differentiation is glutamine-dependent de novo nucleotide biosynthesis while glutamine entry into the TCA cycle (anaplerosis) is not required. Furthermore, the accelerated erythroid differentiation in the presence of 2-DG was associated with a striking increase in pentose phosphates, precursors of nucleotides. Notably, the shunting of glucose into the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), rather than glycolysis, was essential for erythropoiesis. In conclusion, my research shows that the coordinated redirection of glucose and glutamine into the production of nucleotides is the sine qua non condition for the erythroid differentiation of HSCs

FOXO1 regulates pentose phosphate pathway-mediated induction of developmental erythropoiesis

Primitive, neonatal and adult erythroid cells have been previously shown to have an active pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) that fuels various processes. However, it is unclear whether the PPP plays a role during the emergence of erythroid progenitors from hemogenic endothelium (HE). In this study, we explored PPP and its genetic regulation in developmental erythropoiesis. We induced hematopoietic differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to obtain HE cells. These cells were treated with lentiviral vectors harboring shRNAs against FOXO1, or with inhibitors against the PPP, NRF2 or AKT. Erythroid differentiation, proliferation and frequency were evaluated by flow cytometry. Gene expression was assessed by qPCR or by analysis of available RNAseq data. We found that PPP is indispensable for the erythroid differentiation of HE cells and it partially fuels nucleotide biosynthesis. Moreover, we showed that NRF2 and AKT are essential, while FOXO1 is detrimental, for HE-derived erythroid differentiation. In contrast, blocking FOXO1 expression did not affect erythroid differentiation of cord-blood HSPCs. Mechanistically, FOXO1 inhibition in HE cells led to an increase in the non-oxidative branch of the PPP. During developmental erythropoiesis, the gradual decrease in FOXO1 activates the PPP and fuels nucleotide biosynthesis and cell proliferation

Glutamine metabolism regulates endothelial to hematopoietic transition and hematopoietic lineage specification

During hematopoietic development, definitive hematopoietic cells are derived from hemogenic endothelial (HE) cells through a process known as endothelial to hematopoietic transition (EHT). During EHT, transitioning cells proliferate and undergo progressive changes in gene expression culminating in the new cell identity with corresponding changes in function, phenotype and morphology. However, the metabolic pathways fueling this transition remain unclear. We show here that glutamine is a crucial regulator of EHT and a rate limiting metabolite in the hematopoietic differentiation of HE cells. Intriguingly, different hematopoietic lineages require distinct derivatives of glutamine. While both derivatives, α-ketoglutarate and nucleotides, are required for early erythroid differentiation of HE during glutamine deprivation, lymphoid differentiation relies on α-ketoglutarate alone. Furthermore, treatment of HE cells with α-ketoglutarate in glutamine-free conditions pushes their differentiation towards lymphoid lineages both in vitro and in vivo, following transplantation into NSG mice. Thus, we report an essential role for glutamine metabolism during EHT, regulating both the emergence and the specification of hematopoietic cells through its various derivatives

Site-specific CRISPR-based mitochondrial DNA manipulation is limited by gRNA import

Achieving CRISPR Cas9-based manipulation of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has been a long-standing goal and would be of great relevance for disease modeling and for clinical applications. In this project, we aimed to deliver Cas9 into the mitochondria of human cells and analyzed Cas9-induced mtDNA cleavage and measured the resulting mtDNA depletion with multiplexed qPCR. In initial experiments, we found that measuring subtle effects on mtDNA copy numbers is challenging because of high biological variability, and detected no significant Cas9-caused mtDNA degradation. To overcome the challenge of being able to detect Cas9 activity on mtDNA, we delivered cytosine base editor Cas9-BE3 to mitochondria and measured its effect (C → T mutations) on mtDNA. Unlike regular Cas9-cutting, this leaves a permanent mark on mtDNA that can be detected with amplicon sequencing, even if the efficiency is low. We detected low levels of C → T mutations in cells that were exposed to mitochondrially targeted Cas9-BE3, but, surprisingly, these occurred regardless of whether a guide RNA (gRNA) specific to the targeted site, or non-targeting gRNA was used. This unspecific off-target activity shows that Cas9-BE3 can technically edit mtDNA, but also strongly indicates that gRNA import to mitochondria was not successful. Going forward mitochondria-targeted Cas9 base editors will be a useful tool for validating successful gRNA delivery to mitochondria without the ambiguity of approaches that rely on quantifying mtDNA copy numbers

Pyruvate metabolism guides definitive lineage specification during hematopoietic emergence

During embryonic development, hematopoiesis occurs through primitive and definitive waves, giving rise to distinct blood lineages. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) emerge from hemogenic endothelial (HE) cells, through endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition (EHT). In the adult, HSC quiescence, maintenance, and differentiation are closely linked to changes in metabolism. However, metabolic processes underlying the emergence of HSCs from HE cells remain unclear. Here, we show that the emergence of blood is regulated by multiple metabolic pathways that induce or modulate the differentiation toward specific hematopoietic lineages during human EHT. In both in vitro and in vivo settings, steering pyruvate use toward glycolysis or OXPHOS differentially skews the hematopoietic output of HE cells toward either an erythroid fate with primitive phenotype, or a definitive lymphoid fate, respectively. We demonstrate that glycolysis-mediated differentiation of HE toward primitive erythroid hematopoiesis is dependent on the epigenetic regulator LSD1. In contrast, OXPHOS-mediated differentiation of HE toward definitive hematopoiesis is dependent on cholesterol metabolism. Our findings reveal that during EHT, metabolism is a major regulator of primitive versus definitive hematopoietic differentiation

Entry of glucose- and glutamine-derived carbons into the citric acid cycle supports early steps of HIV-1 infection in CD4 T cells

International audienc

Correction: S100A6 is a critical regulator of hematopoietic stem cells

Correction to: Leukemia https://doi.org/10.1038/s41375-020-0901-2</p

S100A6 is a critical regulator of hematopoietic stem cells.

The fate options of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) include self-renewal, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis. HSCs self-renewal divisions in stem cells are required for rapid regeneration during tissue damage and stress, but how precisely intracellular calcium signals are regulated to maintain fate options in normal hematopoiesis is unclear. S100A6 knockout (KO) HSCs have reduced total cell numbers in the HSC compartment, decreased myeloid output, and increased apoptotic HSC numbers in steady state. S100A6KO HSCs had impaired self-renewal and regenerative capacity, not responding to 5-Fluorouracil. Our transcriptomic and proteomic profiling suggested that S100A6 is a critical HSC regulator. Intriguingly, S100A6KO HSCs showed decreased levels of phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) and Hsp90, with an impairment of mitochondrial respiratory capacity and a reduction of mitochondrial calcium levels. We showed that S100A6 regulates intracellular and mitochondria calcium buffering of HSC upon cytokine stimulation and have demonstrated that Akt activator SC79 reverts the levels of intracellular and mitochondrial calcium in HSC. Hematopoietic colony-forming activity and the Hsp90 activity of S100A6KO are restored through activation of the Akt pathway. We show that p-Akt is the prime downstream mechanism of S100A6 in the regulation of HSC self-renewal by specifically governing mitochondrial metabolic function and Hsp90 protein quality

Ciclopirox Ethanolamine Preserves the Immature State of Human HSCs by Mediating Intracellular Iron Content

Culture conditions in which hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) can be expanded for clinical benefit are highly sought after. To elucidate regulatory mechanisms governing the maintenance and propagation of human HSCs ex vivo, we screened libraries of annotated small molecules in human cord blood (CB) cells using an optimized assay for detection of functional HSCs during culture. We found that the antifungal agent ciclopirox ethanolamine (CPX) selectively supported immature CD34+CD90+ cells during culture and enhanced their long-term in vivo repopulation capacity. Purified HSCs treated with CPX showed a reduced cell division rate and an enrichment of HSC- specific gene expression patterns. Mechanistically, we found that the HSC stimulating effect of CPX was directly mediated by chelation of the intracellular iron pool, which in turn affected iron-dependent proteins and enzymes mediating cellular metabolism and respiration. Our findings unveil a significant impact of iron homeostasis in regulation of human HSCs, with important implications for both basic HSC biology and clinical hematology