Informal networking as effective resource and sociocultural traditions of homo sovieticus

Among various reasons for transformation difficulties or modernisation failure in the former Soviet Union countries there is one that is usually considered the most prominent - corruption, as well as several other phenomena closely related to it, that is informal exchange of favours or patron-client relations. These larger phenomena developed in the specific and favourable sociocultural and historical context. Some elements of this context concern the concept of Homo Sovieticus with his attitudes towards informal social networking, reciprocity and group belonging. Informality and informal networking helped and still helps people to "get things done" in easier or mutually beneficial ways representing either facilitation or substitute of formal, institutional action. At the same time informal exchange of favours not only maintains but also reproduces and reinforces longstanding dependencies both among the power elites and middle class representatives making further reforms and modernisation virtually impossible. The paper describes sociocultural traditions that are connected to the Homo Sovieticus concept and explains mechanisms of informal networking as an effective resource and social capital of a personWśród przyczyn problemów transformacyjnych czy też klęski modernizacyjnej w krajach byłego Związku Radzieckiego istnieje jedna, uważana za najważniejszą - korupcja, a także kilka innych zjawisk ściśle związanych z nieformalną wymianą korzyści albo relacjami patron-klient. Te szersze zjawiska rozwinęły się w specyficznym i sprzyjającym kontekście socjokulturowym i historycznym. Niektóre elementy tego kontekstu odnoszą się do koncepcji homo sovieticus z jego postawami wobec nieformalnych sieci społecznych, wzajemności i przynależności grupowej. Nieformalność i sieci nieformalne pomagały i nadal pomagają ludziom w załatwianiu problemów w sposób łatwiejszy albo wzajemnie korzystny, który staje się ułatwieniem lub substytutem działania formalnego, instytucjonalnego. Jednocześnie nieformalna wymiana korzyści nie tylko podtrzymuje, ale również odtwarza lub wzmacnia długoterminowe zależności tak wśród elit, jak i przedstawicieli klas średniej, co sprawia, że dalsze reformy czy modernizacja stają się praktycznie niemożliwe. W artykule opisywane są tradycje socjokulturowe, związane z koncepcją homo sovieticus, i wyjaśniane mechanizmy działania sieci nieformalnych jako skutecznego zasobu oraz osobistego kapitału społeczneg

Energetische Sanierung: Handlungsbedarf auf vielen Ebenen

Um Kosten, Energieimporte und CO2-Emissionen zu reduzieren, ist im Energiekonzept der Bundesregierung vorgesehen, den Wärmebedarf für Gebäude bis 2020 um 20 Prozent und den Primärenergiebedarf bis 2050 um 80 Prozent zu senken. Dazu soll der Anteil der jährlich energetisch sanierten Gebäude von 0,8 Prozent auf zwei Prozent erhöht werden. Bei zwei Prozent energetischen Sanierungen pro Jahr wird jedes Gebäude bis 2050 nur einmal erreicht - so muss jede einzelne Sanierung umfassend sein, um eine 80-prozentige Reduktion des Primärenergiebedarfs zu erreichen. Die auf einer Befragung von 2 000 Haushalten basierende Untersuchung zeigt, wie Haushalte in allen Phasen der Entscheidung und Umsetzung von energetischen Sanierungsmaßnahmen gezielt unterstützt werden können. Zur Steigerung von Umfang und Rate energetischer Sanierungen müssen die entsprechenden Politikinstrumente allerdings gestärkt und weiterentwickelt werden. So können bessere Informationen die Aufmerksamkeit für energetische Sanierungen steigern, zum Beispiel mit detaillierten Heizkostenabrechnungen, weiterentwickelten Energieausweisen und mit der besseren Vermittlung der Vorteile thermischen Komforts in sanierten Gebäuden. Um Haushalte bei der Entscheidung für eine energetische Sanierung zu unterstützten, sollten Beratungen und finanzielle Förderung ausgebaut und auf umfassende energetische Sanierungen konzentriert werden. Ausbildung, Weiterbildung und Zertifizierung von Handwerkern haben Einfluss auf die Qualität energetischer Sanierungen und bestimmen, ob diese einfach, erfolgreich und damit nachahmenswert sind

Thermal Efficiency Retrofit of Residential Buildings: The German Experience

The German government has committed to reducing the primary energy demand of buildings by 80% by 2050. Achieving this reduction will require foremost efficiency improvements, with a first milestone of a 20% reduction in heat demand levels by 2020. Given that about 80% of today’s building stock will remain in place beyond 2050, thermal retrofit of this existing building stock is essential (Figure 1). At the current rate of retrofit, however, only a fraction of the required reduction in thermal energy demand will be reached by 2050. Therefore, both scale and depth of retrofit need to be increased: • The rate at which outer walls are being thermally retrofitted in Germany is currently ca. 0.8% per year for residential buildings; the government target for thermal retrofits is 2% [11]. Reaching this target will be more cost effective if thermal retrofits are linked to general, non-thermal retrofits that buildings owners pursue for non-energy related reasons (e.g. the current non-thermal retrofit rate, hence the retrofit rate that does not include energy efficiency improvements, for outside walls is 2.4%) [11]. • The depth of thermal retrofits today varies significantly, ranging from single measures delivering small overall improvements to deep comprehensive retrofits that may exceed the performance of new builds by up to 50%. Since a 2% retrofit rate only allows for each building to be retrofitted once before 2050, the overall efficiency improvement can only be achieved if all thermal retrofits are deep

Meeting Energy Concept Targets for Residential Retrofits in Germany: Economic Viability, Financial Support, and Energy Savings

In the 2010 Energy Concept, the German government committed to reducing the primary energy requirement of buildings by 80% by 2050 and to increase the thermal retrofit rate from 0.8% to 2% per year. The 2% target is less than the 3%1 rate at which outer walls are currently being renovated each year, so it is achievable even if the government only targets buildings that are already planning a renovation. If a 2% retrofit rate were achieved, most German buildings would have thermal retrofits by 2050. However, in order to achieve the 80% reduction of the primary energy requirement in the building sector, each thermal retrofit has to be „deep‟; that is, it must reduce the energy requirement by around 80%. This paper addresses three questions this raises: 1. What are the costs of deep thermal retrofit for the owner of the building? Is it economically viable? 2. What scale of financial support will be required if the thermal retrofit rate increases to 2% per year? 3. How much energy could be saved

Using Tax Incentives to Support Thermal Retrofits in Germany

The German government has committed to reducing the primary energy demand of buildings by 80% by 2050 and to attaining a thermal retrofit rate of 2%. Achieving both goals will require deep thermal retrofits across the existing building stock. To meet this challenge, the government is exploring what role tax support options could play in encouraging thermal retrofits and ensuring that they deliver the necessary energy performance. The following options are being discussed: - Allow for the accelerated depreciation of investments in the thermal energy efficiency of buildings (further development of § 82a EStDV). For commercial owners and landlords, the net present value and the visibility of tax benefits would increase, thus increasing incentives for improving energy efficiency and compensating for the difficulties involved in passing investment costs to users. For private households, thermal retrofit costs could be made deductible as "special expenditures" and tax benefits would increase with the marginal income tax rate. - Offer tax credits. Currently, 20% of up to 6000 Euro in labor costs can be deducted from tax liability (35a German Income Tax Act, EStG). Expanding the volume and the types of qualifying deductions to cover material costs, and increasing the deductible share of the retrofit costs, could support thermal retrofits of owner-occupied buildings. In this paper, we evaluate international (Italy, Netherlands, and U.S.) experiences with tax benefits supporting thermal retrofits and draw upon the experience of the German KfW loans and grants program

Steueranreize zur Förderung energetischer Sanierungen

Die deutsche Bundesregierung hat das Ziel gesetzt, den Primärenergiebedarf im Gebäudesektor um 80% bis zum Jahr 2050 zu senken und eine energetische Sanierungsrate von 2% zu erreichen. Umfassende, tiefe Sanierungen im Gebäudebestand sind notwendig um beide Ziele zu erreichen. Daher untersucht die Bundesregierung zurzeit, welche Rolle Steueranreize dabei spielen können, diese Sanierungen anzustoßen und die benötigten Energieeinsparungen zu liefern. Die folgenden Optionen werden zurzeit diskutiert: • Eine beschleunigte Abschreibung von Investitionen in Sanierungsmaßnahmen erlauben (Weiterentwicklung von §82a EStDV): Für vermieteten Wohnraum und Nichtwohnraum könnte Absatz 1 den Kapitalwert und die Sichtbarkeit steuerlicher Vorteile vergrößern und so auch dafür kompensieren, dass Vermieter zurzeit Kosten an Mieter nur mit Problemen weitergeben können. Privathaushalte könnten nach Absatz 3 energetische Sanierungen als „Sonderausgaben“ absetzen; Steuerersparnisse würden mit dem Grenzsteuersatz steigen. • Eine Steuergutschrift anbieten: Derzeit können 20% von bis zu 6000€ Arbeitskosten vom zu versteuernden Einkommen abgezogen werden (§35a EStG). Für Eigenheime könnten die Obergrenzen von §35a EStG für energetische Sanierungsmaßnahmen erhöht und auf Planungs- und Materialkosten ausgeweitet werden um Sanierungen zu unterstützen. In einer kurzen Studie hat CPI internationale Erfahrungen mit Steuervergünstigungen zur Förderung energetischer Sanierungen zusammengetragen und auch Erfahrungen der Förderprogramme der KfW Bankengruppe (KfW) zusammengefasst

Economic processes in the safety measurement

The monograph covers the theoretical and methodological foundations of the formation of economic security system and the determinants of its development. Special attention is paid to the influence of geoeconomic factors on the country's economic security in the conditions of globalization and the elimination of the negative impact of world crises on the economic security of Ukraine. The monograph provides a thorough analysis of the international policy of ensuring national security in the context of economic and social aspects. The problem of economic security of regions and economic entities is investigated. The monograph is intended for scientists, lecturers, civil servants, specialists, managers of enterprises and financial institutions, teachers, postgraduates, students, as well as a wide range of readers who are studying national economic security problems

Priority areas for development of scientific research: domestic and foreign experience

The collective monograph describes the priority areas for development of scientific research: domestic and foreign experience. The general issues of economic theory and history, economics and business management, finance and tax policy, modern management, public management and administration, etc. are considered. The publication is intended for scholars, teachers, postgraduate students, and students, as well as a wide readership

Naśladownictwo vs wyjątkowość: wybrane cechy cywilizacji radzieckiej w dziele Siergieja Kara-Murzy

Imitation vs uniqueness: Selected features of the Soviet civilization in the work of Sergey Kara-MurzaAt the end of the 20th c., ten years aft er the Soviet Union had collapsed, the famous Russian researcher and social thinker Sergey Kara-Murza offered his opus magnum about the Soviet civilization, written, as he emphasized on the cover, ‘with love towards the Soviet order.’ The author used a lot of sources, statistics and facts unfortunately rarely cited by him, frequently refering also to the everyday life of ordinary people, as well as some specific events, elite decisions and behavior. The work is rich in his autobiographic memories and observations as well as some strongly accented political views and social-historical ideas. Kara-Murza considers the society that existed on that specific territory from 1917 till 1991 a unique civilization that was deeply rooted, had serious moral foundations and adequate economic base. In his opus magnum Kara-Murza presented both the history of the Soviet civilization and the reasons it failed to survive the changes of the late 20th c.He emphasised its uniqueness, authenticity, independence and the incomparable character of the Soviet order with its collectivity, self-help, community and social justice. Throughout his work he compares these authentic features with pro-Western imitation trends in culture, social life, economy and later politics that were later fatal for the Soviet civilization and ever contemporary Russia.Imitation vs uniqueness: Selected features of the Soviet civilization in the work of Sergey Kara-MurzaAt the end of the 20th c., ten years aft er the Soviet Union had collapsed, the famous Russian researcher and social thinker Sergey Kara-Murza offered his opus magnum about the Soviet civilization, written, as he emphasized on the cover, ‘with love towards the Soviet order.’ The author used a lot of sources, statistics and facts unfortunately rarely cited by him, frequently refering also to the everyday life of ordinary people, as well as some specific events, elite decisions and behavior. The work is rich in his autobiographic memories and observations as well as some strongly accented political views and social-historical ideas. Kara-Murza considers the society that existed on that specific territory from 1917 till 1991 a unique civilization that was deeply rooted, had serious moral foundations and adequate economic base. In his opus magnum Kara-Murza presented both the history of the Soviet civilization and the reasons it failed to survive the changes of the late 20th c.He emphasised its uniqueness, authenticity, independence and the incomparable character of the Soviet order with its collectivity, self-help, community and social justice. Throughout his work he compares these authentic features with pro-Western imitation trends in culture, social life, economy and later politics that were later fatal for the Soviet civilization and ever contemporary Russia