The development of socio-economic health differences in childhood: results of the Dutch longitudinal PIAMA birth cohort

Background: People with higher socio-economic status (SES) are generally in better health. Less is known about when these socio-economic health differences set in during childhood and how they develop over time. The goal of this study was to prospectively study the development of socio-economic health differences in the Netherlands, and to investigate possible explanations for socio-economic variation in childhood health. Methods: Data from the Dutch Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy (PIAMA) birth cohort study were used for the analyses. The PIAMA study followed 3,963 Dutch children during their first eight years of life. Common childhood health problems (i.e. eczema, asthma symptoms, general health, frequent respiratory infections, overweight, and obesity) were assessed annually using questionnaires. Maternal educational level was used to indicate SES. Possible explanatory lifestyle determinants (breastfeeding, smoking during pregnancy, smoking during the first three months, and day-care centre attendance) and biological determinants (maternal age at birth, birthweight, and older siblings) were analysed using generalized estimating equations. Results: This study shows that socio-economic differences in a broad range of health problems are already present early in life, and persist during childhood. Children from families with low socio-economic backgrounds experience more asthma symptoms (odds ratio (OR) 1.27; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.08-1.49), poorer general health (OR 1.36; 95% CI 1.16-1.60), more frequent respiratory infections (OR 1.57; 95% CI 1.35-1.83), more overweight (OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.16-1.73), and more obesity (OR 2.82; 95% CI 1.80-4.41). The most important contributors to the observed childhood socio-economic health disparities are socio-economic differences in maternal age at birth, breastfeeding, and day-care centre attendance. Conclusions: Socio-economic health disparities already occur very early in life. Socio-economic disadvantage takes its toll on child health before birth, and continues to do so during childhood. Therefore, action to reduce health disparities needs to start very early in life, and should also address socio-economic differences in maternal age at birth, breastfeeding habits, and day-care centre attendance

The \u2018Dark Side\u2019 of the Smartness

Even if there is not a universally shared definition, the term \u201cSmart City\u201d recalls a sustainable, hyper-technological city that is self-sufficient in terms of energy; this type of city uses communication systems between the various technologies to optimize the efficiency of services and to better connect all citizens. Its huge acceptance, both by the scientific community and the urban governance institutions, highlights how the time of reinterpretation of the city had arrived. The smart city, correlated by the transition of the old to the new economy, is based on innovation aimed at achieving maximum efficiency in the urban system through the synergy between traditional functions attributable to the tangible part of the city (residences, services, infrastructures, etc.) and new functions attributable to the intangible one (IoT, virtual and augmented reality, etc.). Reaching these goals drives cities into a circle of continuous evolution, which implies, like all changes, both positive aspects, and side effects, i.e., a \u2018dark side\u2019. Aim of the paper is to highlight this aspect and its implications. This is found in economic-social dynamics, such as gentrification, filtering and sprawl, environmental and geo-political dynamics, related to finding the resources needed to support digital urban technological innovation and to guarantee high standards of quality of life, and governance dynamics, linked to the capacity of changing the ways of administrate the change and changing radically - thanks to technology - the way of addressing the daily - as well as the strategic - problems and challenges of the city

Fatores de risco para perda ponderal de crianças frequentadoras de berçários em creches do município de São Paulo Risk factors for ponderal loss of children attending the nurseries of day care centers in São Paulo, Brazil

OBJETIVO: Identificar e quantificar os fatores de risco relacionados ao agravamento da condição nutricional entre o nascimento e a realização deste estudo. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal com 270 crianças frequentadoras dos berçários de oito creches públicas e filantrópicas do município de São Paulo. Considerou-se com perda ponderal as crianças que apresentaram diferença negativa do escore Z para a relação peso para idade entre o nascimento e a ocasião da realização desse inquérito. No estudo das associações, utilizou-se o teste do qui-quadrado e consideraram-se as variáveis com nível de significância p<0,05. Foi ajustado modelo multivariado de regressão logística com estimativas de razões de chance (Odds Ratio, OR) para o controle de covariáveis ou variáveis de confundimento. RESULTADOS: A análise antropométrica revelou prevalência de desnutrição (P/I <-2 escore Z) de 7,1% no nascimento e de 4,4% na ocasião da medida e evidenciou evolução ponderal em escore Z desfavorável para 50,7% das crianças (n=137). Nas análises bivariadas, as variáveis "peso de nascimento suficiente" (OR=5,35; p<0,001), "anemia" (OR=1,81; p=0,019) e "idade menor que 19 meses" (OR=1,67; p=0,036) alcançaram significância estatística. CONCLUSÕES: A perda ponderal em escore Z ao longo dos primeiros meses de vida é um indicador ainda pouco utilizado em estudos epidemiológicos, mas a realização de outras pesquisas poderá identificá-la como um indicador de risco de vulnerabilidade sociobiológica. Sugere-se a execução de programas de Saúde voltados ao controle da perda ponderal e que enfoquem a população infantil de menor idade e/ou com anemia, de modo a reduzir a prevalência dos agravos nutricionais.<br>OBJECTIVE: To identify and quantify risk factors related to the aggravation of nutritional condition from birth until the date of the study. METHODS: Cross-sectional study with 270 children attending nurseries of eight public and non-for-profit daycare centers in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Ponderal loss was considered when children presented negative difference of Z score for weight-for-age (W/A) from birth until the date of the present inquiry. Chi-square was used to test associations and considered significant if p<0.05. Multivariate logistic regression model adjusted Odds Ratio estimates for confounding variables and/or covariables. RESULTS: Anthropometric analysis showed 7.1% prevalence of malnutrition (W/A<-2 Z score) at birth and 4.4% by the time of measurement. Ponderal evolution with unfavorable Z score was present in 50.7% of studied children (n=137). In the bivariate analyses, the variables: birth weight (OR=5.35; p<0.001), anemia (OR=1.81; p=0.019) and age less than 19 months (OR=1.67; p=0.036) were statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Ponderal loss in Z score during the first months of life has not been often used in epidemiological studies. However, future researches might identify weight loss as an indicator of risk for sociobiological vulnerability. Development of health programs in order to reduce the prevalence of nutritional aggravation targeting the younger population with anemia is strongly recommended