Communicating the Neuroscience of Psychopathy and Its Influence on Moral Behavior : Protocol of Two Experimental Studies

Neuroscience has identified brain structures and functions that correlate with psychopathic tendencies. Since psychopathic traits can be traced back to physical neural attributes, it has been argued that psychopaths are not truly responsible for their actions and therefore should not be blamed for their psychopathic behaviors. This experimental research aims to evaluate what effect communicating this theory of psychopathy has on the moral behavior of lay people. If psychopathy is blamed on the brain, people may feel less morally responsible for their own psychopathic tendencies and therefore may be more likely to display those tendencies. An online study will provide participants with false feedback about their psychopathic traits supposedly based on their digital footprint (i.e., Facebook likes), thus classifying them as having either above-average or below-average psychopathic traits and describing psychopathy in cognitive or neurobiological terms. This particular study will assess the extent to which lay people are influenced by feedback regarding their psychopathic traits, and how this might affect their moral behavior in online tasks. Public recognition of these potential negative consequences of neuroscience communication will also be assessed. A field study using the lost letter technique will be conducted to examine lay people's endorsement of neurobiological, as compared to cognitive, explanations of criminal behavior. This field and online experimental research could inform the future communication of neuroscience to the public in a way that is sensitive to the potential negative consequences of communicating such science. In particular, this research may have implications for the future means by which neurobiological predictors of offending can be safely communicated to offenders.Peer reviewe

No Differential Effects of Neural and Psychological Explanations of Psychopathy on Moral Behavior

Research in neurocriminology has explored the link between neural functions and structures and the psychopathic disposition. This online experiment aimed to assess the effect of communicating the neuroscience of psychopathy on the degree to which lay people exhibited attitudes characteristic of psychopathy in particular in terms of moral behavior. If psychopathy is blamed on the brain, people may feel less morally responsible for their own psychopathic tendencies. In the study, participants read false feedback about their own psychopathic traits supposedly inferred from their Facebook likes, described either in neurobiological or cognitive terms. Participants were randomly allocated to read that they either had above-average or below-average psychopathic traits. We found no support for the hypothesis that the neuroscientific explanation of psychopathy influences moral behavior. This casts doubt on the fear that communicating the neuroscience of psychopathy will promote psychopathic attitudes

Predictors of Enhancing Human Physical Attractiveness: Data from 93 Countries

People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending \u3e10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, right-wing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complementary perspectives

Reasons for facebook usage: Data from 46 countries

Seventy-nine percent of internet users use Facebook, and on average they access Facebook eight times a day (Greenwood et al., 2016). To put these numbers into perspective, according to Clement (2019), around 30% of the world\u2019s population uses this Online Social Network (OSN) site. Despite the constantly growing body of academic research on Facebook (Chou et al., 2009; Back et al., 2010; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010; McAndrew and Jeong, 2012; Wilson et al., 2012; Krasnova et al., 2017), there remains limited research regarding the motivation behind Facebook use across different cultures. Our main goal was to collect data from a large cross-cultural sample of Facebook users to examine the roles of sex, age, and, most importantly, cultural differences underlying Facebook use

Affective interpersonal touch in close relationships: a cross-cultural perspective

Interpersonal touch behavior differs across cultures, yet no study to date has systematically tested for cultural variation in affective touch, nor examined the factors that might account for this variability. Here, over 14,000 individuals from 45 countries were asked whether they embraced, stroked, kissed, or hugged their partner, friends, and youngest child during the week preceding the study. We then examined a range of hypothesized individual-level factors (sex, age, parasitic history, conservatism, religiosity, and preferred interpersonal distance) and cultural-level factors (regional temperature, parasite stress, regional conservatism, collectivism, and religiosity) in predicting these affective-touching behaviors. Our results indicate that affective touch was most prevalent in relationships with partners and children, and its diversity was relatively higher in warmer, less conservative, and religious countries, and among younger, female, and liberal people. This research allows for a broad and integrated view of the bases of cross-cultural variability in affective touch

The benefits of psychologically targeted strategies in the social marketing context: cognitive and sociopsychological outcomes

Socialna omrežja, kot je Facebook, ponujajo vrsto priložnosti za učinkovito množično komunikacijo. Te so pogosto uspešno izrabljene s strani marketinških podjetij, ki v njih vidijo sredstvo za povečevanje profita, medtem ko institucije – ki bi iste principe lahko uporabile za izobraževanje in spodbujanje javnosti k družbeno koristnim vedenjem – v aplikaciji principov učinkovite množične komunikacije tradicionalno zaostajajo. V pričujoči študiji se osredotočamo na enega od tovrstnih principov, in sicer na strategije psihološkega ciljanja, pri katerih pošiljatelj sporočila poskrbi za ujemanje Facebook oglasov s psihološkimi karakteristikami posameznika, ki bo oglasu izpostavljen. Medtem ko pretekla literatura razkriva nekatere koristi psihološko ciljanih strategij v kontekstu komercialnega marketinga, v pričujoči študiji raziskovanje psihološkega ciljanja premikamo v kontekst socialnega marketinga in nadgrajujemo s preverjanjem mnogih – do tega trenutka slabo raziskanih – elementov. Pri tem se osredotočamo na tri raznolike teme, ki imajo znanstveno podporo in bi lahko koristile posameznikom ter družbi v celoti (cepljenje proti gripi, preventiva demence in zmanjševanje ogljičnega odtisa), Facebook objave pa prilagajamo posameznikovi ekstravertnosti, odprtosti ali pa obema omenjenima osebnostnima lastnostma hkrati (profil osebnosti). Za preverjanje učinkovitosti psihološko ciljanih strategij v kontekstu socialnega marketinga smo pripravili dva eksperimenta. V prvi študiji (laboratorijska študija) preverjamo pretežno kognitivne mehanizme, prek katerih bi psihološko ciljanje lahko vodilo do želenih izidov, kot je vedenjska sprememba, in sicer samoporočano naklonjenost Facebook objavam, pozornost, zajeto s sledilnikom oči in spomin, merjen z računalniško nalogo. Na vzorcu 98 udeležencev ugotavljamo, da oglasi s kongruentno ekstravertnostjo in kongruentnim profilom osebnosti kažejo konsistentne koristi v primerjavi z inkongruentnimi objavami, a so učinki na naklonjenost, pozornost in uspešnost prepoznave blagi. Nadalje v drugi študiji (spletni eksperiment) preverjamo bolj oprijemljive, socialnopsihološke izide, in sicer spremembo stališč ter spremembo vedenjskih namer. Na vzorcu 312 udeležencev ugotavljamo, da se v smeri izrazitejšega poviševanja stališč in vedenjskih namer v primerjavi z inkongruentnimi oglasi nagibajo predvsem učinki objav s kongruentnim profilom osebnosti, a so le-ti blagi in ne popolnoma uniformni. Ob tem smo v obeh študijah preverjali še odobravanje psihološkega ciljanja. Rezultati kažejo, da večina udeležencev ne odobrava psihološkega ciljanja ali pa bi psihološko ciljanje odobravali le pod določenimi pogoji, npr. kadar se uporablja v dobro uporabnikov. Pri tem se kažejo tudi pomembni napovedniki odobravanja, npr. starost. Skupno ti rezultati implicirajo, da psihološko ciljanje lahko prinaša koristi v smislu kognitivnih in socialnopsiholoških izidov, a so te šibke. Nadalje študija razkriva, da ima večina ljudi zadržke do uporabe psihološkega ciljanja. V diskusiji te rezultate povežemo s preteklo literaturo, izpostavimo njihovo uporabno vrednost ter se dotaknemo pomanjkljivosti pričujočih študij.Social media, such as Facebook, offer a myriad of opportunities for effective mass communication. Many such opportunities are successfully used by marketing companies as a means to increase profits, while institutions – which could use these same principles to educate the public and encourage them to act in their best interest – traditionally lag behind. In the present study, we focus on one such principle, psychological targeting, whereby a communicator matches the content of Facebook ads to the psychological characteristics of people who will be exposed to them. While past literature reveals some of the benefits of psychologically targeted strategies in the context of commercial marketing, we extend the literature by exploring psychological targeting in the context of social marketing and by testing several novel aspects. In doing so, we focus on three diverse topics that have substantial scientific support and could benefit individuals and society as a whole (influenza vaccination, dementia prevention, and carbon footprint reduction), and match the content of Facebook posts to fit individuals’ extraversion, openness to experience, or both of these personality traits at the same time (personality profile). We test the effectiveness of psychologically targeted strategies in the context of social marketing via two experiments. In the study 1 (a laboratory experiment), we test the (mainly) cognitive mechanisms by which psychological targeting could lead to positive outcomes, such as behavioral change, namely self-reported liking of presented materials, attention captured by the eye-tracker, and the memory, measured with a computerized task. On the sample of 98 participants, we find that ads with congruent extraversion and congruent personality profiles consistently show benefits over incongruent materials. However, the effects on ad liking, attention, and recognition are predominantly small. Furthermore, in the second study (an online experiment), we focus on more tangible, social-psychological outcomes, namely attitude change and changes in behavioral intention. On the sample of 312 participants, we find that only ads with congruent personality profiles tend to lead to more pronounced increases in both outcomes (compared to incongruent ads). However, the effects were less consistent and mild. Additionally, we also studied people\u27s approval of psychological targeting in both studies. The results show that the majority does not approve of psychological targeting, or that they would only approve of it under certain conditions, e.g. when it is used for the sole benefit of the users. The results also illuminate several important predictors of public attitudes towards psychological targeting, such as age. Taken together, these results indicate that psychological targeting can be beneficial in terms of cognitive and socio-psychological outcomes but these benefits are generally weak. Furthermore, the study reveals that most people have concerns regarding the use of psychological targeting. In the discussion, we compare these results with the past literature, highlight their practical value, and outline the limitations of the present studies

Predictors of trust in science and its role in explaining health behavior and responses to health-related messages

V času pandemije covida-19, za katero je, sploh v začetnih fazah, bilo značilno širjenje velike količine nasprotujočih si informacij in negotovosti, smo lahko v medijih pogosto zasledili poudarjanje pomena zaupanja znanosti in znanstvenikom. Medtem ko so nekatera pretekla znanstvena dela resnično kazala, da bi zaupanje v znanost lahko bilo pomemben napovednik zdravstvenih odločitev, kot so denimo odločitve glede cepljenja, je bilo tovrstnih raziskav zelo malo in so nudile precej omejen vpogled v ozadje opaženih odnosov. Prav tako je bilo v literaturi prisotnih precej nejasnosti glede opredelitve zaupanja v znanost, najboljših načinov merjenja in napovednikov, ki k njemu prispevajo. V pričujoči doktorski disertaciji smo tako želeli najprej teoretično razjasniti pojmovanje in operacionalizacijo zaupanja v znanost ter celovito pregledati preteklo literaturo o dejavnikih, zdravstvenih izidih in potencialnih razlagah povezave med zaupanjem v znanost in zdravstvenim vedenjem. V nadaljevanju pa smo si prizadevali to znanje nadgraditi s štirimi empiričnimi raziskavami, ki razširjajo naše razumevanje vloge zaupanja v znanost pri napovedovanju vedenja v kontekstu zdravja, povezanih spremenljivk in napovednikov zaupanja v znanost, prav tako pa mehanizmov, ki pojasnjujejo vlogo zaupanja v znanost pri določanju odzivov na z zdravjem povezana sporočila. Rezultati so pokazali, da je zaupanje v znanost pomemben napovednik upoštevanja smernic za zajezitev širjenja covida-19, ob tem pa predstavlja tudi vezni člen med splošnejšimi sociodemografskimi lastnostmi posameznikov (npr. politično orientiranostjo) in vedenjem v kontekstu covida-19 (raziskava 1). Na ravni populacije se zaupanje v znanost prepleta z znanstveno in zdravstveno pismenostjo ter na tak način tvori homogene podskupine posameznikov, pri čemer skupine z nižjimi ravnmi zaupanja v znanost praviloma izkazujejo tudi nižje ravni zdravega življenjskega sloga in z znanostjo podprtih vedenj, vezanih na covid-19 (raziskava 2). Zaupanje v znanost se med posamezniki precej razlikuje. Višje ravni zaupanja v znanost izkazujejo osebe z nižjo politično konservativnostjo, religioznostjo in zarotniško miselnostjo ter višjo odprtostjo za izkušnje in intelektualno skromnostjo, medtem ko stopnja izobrazbe in reflektiven način razmišljanja nista pomembna napovednika zaupanja v znanost (raziskava 3). Razlike v zdravstvenem vedenju med osebami, ki bolj ali manj zaupajo v znanost, lahko vsaj delno razložimo z razlikami v odzivih na zdravstveno komunikacijo, ki vsebuje vedenjska priporočila. V primeru kontroverznih tem, kot je covid-19, osebe z nizkim zaupanjem v znanost ob izpostavljenosti sporočilu pogosteje doživljajo psihološko reaktanco, kar v naslednjem koraku prispeva tudi k manj ugodnim stališčem in vedenjskim nameram. Tovrstne negativne odzive je mogoče zmanjšati s premišljeno in manj ogrožajočo zdravstveno komunikacijo (raziskava 4). Ugotovitve raziskav tako konsistentno podpirajo idejo, da je zaupanje v znanost pomemben dejavnik zdravstvenega vedenja. Ker ima še posebej pomembno vlogo v primeru negotovih, čustveno nabitih in osebno relevantnih tematik, bi ga bilo zavoljo oblikovanja družbe, sposobne prilagajanja na prihodnje zdravstvene in druge krize, vredno krepiti, intervencije pa morajo biti premišljene in celovite. Izvedene raziskave ob tem odpirajo tudi nekatera nova raziskovalna vprašanja, kot so vprašanja posplošljivosti opaženih odnosov v druge kulturne kontekste, dolgotrajno učinkovitih načinov spodbujanja zaupanja v znanost in prenosa spoznanj iz zdravstvenega konteksta na druge družbene izzive (na primer podnebne spremembe).During the COVID-19 pandemic, which was, especially in its early stages, characterized by a proliferation of conflicting information and uncertainty, media headlines often stressed the importance of trust in science and scientists. While some previous scientific work has, indeed, implied that trust in science might be an important predictor of health-related decisions, such as the decision to get vaccinated, studies were very scarce and offered a rather limited insight into what underlies these associations. Moreover, the literature suffered from considerable ambiguity regarding how trust in science can be defined, how it should be measured, and which factors determine individuals’ trust. In the present doctoral thesis, we hence aimed to theoretically clarify the conceptualization and operationalization of trust in science and comprehensively review the past literature on the determinants, health outcomes, and potential explanations of the link between trust in science and health behavior. We then sought to build on this knowledge with four empirical studies that extend our understanding of the role of trust in science in predicting behavior in the health context, the associated variables and predictors of trust in science, and the mechanisms that explain the role of trust in science in determining responses to health-related messages. The results showed that trust in science is an important predictor of compliance with COVID-19 prevention guidelines. It also serves as a mediator between individuals’ general sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., political orientation) and coronavirus-related behavior (Study 1). At the population level, trust in science interacts with scientific knowledge and health literacy to form homogeneous subgroups of individuals, with groups characterized by lower levels of trust in science exhibiting lower levels of health-promoting behavior and evidence-based behavior related to COVID-19 (Study 2). Trust in science varies considerably between individuals. Higher levels of trust in science are reported by those with lower levels of political conservatism, religiosity, and conspiracy ideation, as well as higher levels of openness to experience and intellectual humility. On the other hand, education level and reflective thinking are not significant predictors of trust in science (Study 3). Differences in health behavior between people with varying degrees of trust in science can, at least partly, be explained by differences in their responses to health communication containing behavioral guidelines. In the case of controversial topics, such as COVID-19, individuals with low trust in science are more likely to experience psychological reactance during exposure to health-related messages, which, in turn, contributes to less favorable attitudes and behavioral intentions. Such negative reactions can be mitigated with thoughtful, less freedom-threatening health communication (Study 4). Our findings thus consistently support the notion that trust in science is an important determinant of health behavior. As it plays a particularly vital role in the case of uncertain, emotionally charged, and personally relevant topics, strengthening trust in science with carefully planned endeavors may contribute to creating a society capable of adapting to future health and other crises. At the same time, our research raises some new research questions, such as questions regarding the generalizability of the observed associations to other cultural contexts, effective ways of promoting trust in science, and transferability of our findings from the health context to other global challenges (e.g., climate change)

Dopolnilno gradivo za članek Modeling compliance with COVID-19 prevention guidelines: the critical role of trust in science

The coronavirus pandemic is one of the biggest health crises of our time. In response to this global problem, various institutions around the world had soon issued evidence-based prevention guidelines. However, these guidelines, which were designed to slow the spread of COVID-19 and contribute to public well-being, are (deliberately) disregarded by some individuals. In the present study, we aimed to develop and test a multivariate model that could help us identify individual characteristics that make a person more/less likely to comply with COVID-19 prevention guidelines. A total of 525 attentive participants completed the online survey. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) show that COVID-19 risk perception and trust in science both independently predict compliance with COVID-19 prevention guidelines, while the remaining variables in the model (political conservatism, religious orthodoxy, conspiracy ideation and intellectual curiosity) do so via the mediating role of trust in science. The described model exhibited an acceptable fit ([chi sup]2(1611) = 2485.84, [rho]<.001, CFI=.91, RMSEA=.032, SRMR=.055). These findings thus provide empirical support for the proposed multivariate model and underline the importance of trust in science in explaining the different levels of compliance with COVID-19 prevention guidelines

Do I know as much as I think I do? The Dunning-Kruger effect, overclaiming, and the illusion of knowledge

Realistic perception of our own knowledge is important in various areas of everyday life, yet previous studies reveal that our self-perception is full of shortcomings. The present study focused on general overestimation of knowledge and differences between experts and the less-skilled (The Dunning-Kruger effect), self-perceived knowledge of non-existing concepts (overclaiming), and the illusion of knowledge. These phenomena were tested with an instrument which measured the actual knowledge of different domains (grammar, literature, and nanotechnology), as well as self-assessed knowledge. Results showed that, on average, participants overestimated their absolute performance, but not their performance relative to others. Furthermore, the bottom quartile overestimated their absolute and their relative performance most, while the top quartile perceived their absolute performance most accurately and substantially underestimated their relative performance. Results related to overclaiming showed that 56% of respondents claimed knowledge of at least one non-existent book and that the extent of overclaiming was substantially correlated with self-perceived expertise. Lastly, results showed that an increased quantity of information about nanotechnology led to a false certainty in answering questions from this area

Understanding, Trusting, and Applying Scientific Insights to Improve Your Health: A Latent Profile Analysis Approach

Various leading causes of death can be prevented or delayed through informed decision-making and lifestyle changes. Previous work has, to some extent, linked such health-promoting behavior (HPB) with variables capturing individuals&rsquo; understanding of science, trust in science, and capacity to apply evidence-based information in the health context. However, empirical research on the relationship between scientific knowledge, trust in science, health literacy, and HPB is scarce. Additionally, no study has investigated whether these characteristics interact to form homogeneous, high-risk subgroups of the population. The present online study (N = 705) revealed that trust in science and health literacy were positively related to a wide array of HPBs (e.g., healthy nutrition, physical activity, stress management), while scientific knowledge was only positively associated with COVID-19 vaccination intention. Furthermore, the results of latent profile analyses yielded four subgroups (i.e., low, moderate, and high levels of all three variables and a varied profile exhibiting very low trust in science, low health literacy, and moderate scientific knowledge). The identified subgroups differ significantly in HPB and variables determining profile membership (e.g., political conservatism). Hence, the present study offers some guidance on which groups may be targeted with public health campaigns and how they may be designed