The effect of warm-up on swimming performance: the impact of volume, intensity and post warm-up recovery in elite swimmers

Warming-up before training or competition has become one of the most interesting topics in sport sciences in the last years. The technical and scientific community has been aware of the key role of warm up in swimming performance and the deepening of the knowledge on this subject is presented as an asset to optimize training and competition performance. Thus, the purpose of this work was to analyze the effects of warm-up on 100 m freestyle swimming performance in high-level swimmers. In addition, we intended to verify the effects of different volumes, intensities and post warm-up recovery times, by measuring the performance, and the biomechanical, physiological and psychophysiological responses of the swimmers. For the accomplishment of these purposes the following sequence was used: (i) reviewing the available literature; (ii) comparing the warm-up and no warm-up condition on 100 m freestyle; (iii) assessing three different volumes of warm-up, with the same intensity, and their effects on 100 m freestyle; (iv) analyzing two different intensities (race-pace vs. aerobic stimulation) on the 100 m race; (v) comparing two different post warm-up periods on the 100 m freestyle. The main conclusions drawn were (i) there is a limited research on warm-up and its structure in swimming; (ii) the warm-up improved swimming performance on 100 m freestyle race; (iii) the volume of warm-up should be up to 1200 m, with the risk of impaired performances with longer warm-ups; (iv) the stimulation of aerobic metabolism during warm-up is a reliable alternative to traditional race-pace; (v) the positive effects of warm-up, as increased core temperature, oxygen uptake, and heart rate are reduced over time and warm-up should be performed close to the race; (vi) different biomechanical patterns were used in response to the different warm-ups and these protocols could be used according to race strategy. In addition, it can be stated that high-level swimmers presented an individual adaptation to each warm-up design. Our results give clear remarks about the effects of volume, intensity and recovery periods and main physiological and biomechanical changes. These findings can be used by coaches and researches as a source for development of individual approaches or/and for further investigations.O aquecimento antes do treino e da competição tem-se tornado um dos tópicos mais interessantes de investigação em Ciências do Desporto nos últimos anos. A comunidade técnica e científica está consciente do papel fundamental do aquecimento no rendimento em natação e o aprofundar do seu conhecimento é apresentado enquanto um trunfo para otimizar a performance de nado. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar os efeitos do aquecimento na prova de 100 m livres em nadadores de elevado nível. Pretendemos analisar os efeitos da utilização de diferentes volumes, intensidades e períodos de recuperação pós aquecimento, através da avaliação da performance e de variáveis biomecânicas, fisiológicas e psicofisiológicas. Para tal, foram adotados os seguintes passos: (i) revisão da literatura; (ii) comparação entre a realização ou não de aquecimento antes dos 100 m livres; (iii) avaliação de três diferentes volumes de aquecimento, com a mesma intensidade, e os seus efeitos nos 100 m livres; (iv) análise da influência de duas intensidades de aquecimento (ritmo de prova vs. estimulação aeróbia) nos 100 m livres; (v) comparação de dois diferentes intervalos de recuperação após o aquecimento. As principais conclusões que advêm do trabalho são as seguintes: (i) existe pouca literatura e conhecimento limitado acerca dos efeitos do aquecimento e da sua estrutura em natação; (ii) o aquecimento é benéfico para os 100 m livres; (iii) um volume de aquecimento até aos 1200 m parece ser o mais apropriado para a otimização dos 100 m livres, sendo que maiores volumes podem comprometer a performance; (iv) a estimulação aeróbia durante o aquecimento é uma alternativa viável ao ritmo de prova tradicional; (v) os efeitos positivos do aquecimento, como a temperatura, a frequência cardíaca e o consumo de oxigénio, diminuem ao longo do tempo e o aquecimento deve ser realizado o mais próximo possível da prova; (vi) existem diferentes respostas biomecânicas às diferences condições testadas, informação que poderá ser útil para preparar a estratégia de prova. É ainda de referir que os nadadores de elevado nível apresentam adaptações individuais em função de cada aquecimento. Os efeitos do volume, intensidade e intervalos entre o aquecimento e a prova, assim como as principais adaptações fisiológicas e biomecânicas, podem ser utilizados por treinadores e investigadores para desenvolvimento de abordagens individualizadas e investigações futuras

A Systematic Review

The use of smart technology, specifically inertial sensors (accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers), to analyze swimming kinematics is being reported in the literature. However, little is known about the usage/application of such sensors in other human aquatic exercises. As the sensors are getting smaller, less expensive, and simple to deal with (regarding data acquisition), one might consider that its application to a broader range of exercises should be a reality. The aim of this systematic review was to update the state of the art about the framework related to the use of sensors assessing human movement in an aquatic environment, besides swimming. The following databases were used: IEEE Xplore, Pubmed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Web of Science. Five articles published in indexed journals, aiming to assess human exercises/movements in the aquatic environment were reviewed. The data from the five articles was categorized and summarized based on the aim, purpose, participants, sensor's specifications, body area and variables analyzed, and data analysis and statistics. The analyzed studies aimed to compare the movement/exercise kinematics between environments (i.e., dry land versus aquatic), and in some cases compared healthy to pathological participants. The use of sensors in a rehabilitation/hydrotherapy perspective may provide major advantages for therapists.Bolsa BIPD/ICIFCSH-Santander Universidades—UBI/2017info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

A Systematic Review

Background: Exercise leads to a robust inflammatory response mainly characterized by the mobilization of leukocytes and an increase in circulating inflammatory mediators produced by immune cells and directly from the active muscle tissue. Both positive and negative effects on immune function and susceptibility to minor illness have been observed following different training protocols. While engaging in moderate activity may enhance immune function above sedentary levels, excessive amounts of prolonged, high-intensity exercise may impair immune function. Thus, the aim of the present review was to clarify the inflammatory effects in response to different exercise intensities. Methods: Search was performed on PubMed and was completed on July 31st, 2017. The studies were eligible if they met the predefined inclusion criteria: a) observational or interventional studies, b) conducted in healthy adults (18-65 years), c) written in Portuguese, English or Spanish, d) including moderate and/or intense exercise. Eighteen articles were included. The specific components that were examined included circulating blood levels of cytokines, leukocytes, creatine kinase (CK) and C-reactive protein (CRP). The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed. Results: Most of the intervention studies showed changes in the assessed biomarkers, although these changes were not consistent. White blood cells (WBC) had an increase immediately after intensive exercise (> 64% VO2max), without alteration after moderate exercise (46-64% VO2max). The results suggested an elevation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, namely IL-6, followed by an elevation of IL-10 that were more evident after intense exercise bouts. CRP increased both after intense and moderate exercise, with peak increases up to 28 h. CK increased only after intensive and long exercising. Conclusion: In summary, intense long exercise can lead, in general, to higher levels of inflammatory mediators, and thus might increase the risk of injury and chronic inflammation. In contrast, moderate exercise or vigorous exercise with appropriate resting periods can achieve maximum benefit.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Can Interpersonal Behavior Influence the Persistence and Adherence to Physical Exercise Practice in Adults? A Systematic Review

Objective: Motivation seems to be a fundamental indicator of long-term physical exercise adherence. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) argues that social environment plays a central role in the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, which might directly affect the quality of one’s motivation. Individuals who appear to be more self-determined tend to persist longer at certain behaviors. Therefore, this body of work intends to analyze the relationship between motivational variables and behavioral outcomes in the exercise context, having as theoretical background the Self-Determination Theory. Methods: This systematic review was conducted through an electronic search on Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO. Data such as instruments, main predictors and results were collected from studies published between 1985 and 2018. A total of 35 empirical studies were considered for a detailed analysis. Results: Results showed the relevance of autonomy support performed by exercise professionals, as well as the major contribution that these behaviors have toward the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, besides the inherent benefits of developing more autonomous regulations. According to the literature, few studies have analyzed interpersonal thwarting behavior and the way this relates to basic psychological needs’ frustration. Nether less, there seems to be a negative relationship between less self-determined regulations and exercise practice. Conclusion: Despite the existence of numerous cross-sectional studies that demonstrate positive correlations between SDT and behavioral outcomes in the exercise context, longitudinal research that analyzes all six dimensions of interpersonal behaviors and their relationship with persistence and adherence to exercise proves to be crucial. However, according to this review, interventions based on SDT appear to be fundamental when it comes to promote the maintenance of a long-term exercise practice.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

The Effect 0f Warm-up on Tethered Front Crawl Swimming Forces

This study was conducted to determine the effect of warm-up on high-intensity front crawl tethered swimming and thus to better understand possible variations in the force exerted by the swimmers. Ten male national level swimmers (mean ± SD; age 15.3 ± 0.95 years old, height: 1.73 ± 5.2 m, body mass: 64.3 ± 7.8 kg, Fat mass 8.31 ± 3.1 kg) participated in this study. After a typical competition warm-up, the subjects performed a 30 s tethered swimming all-out effort in front crawl swimming technique. The same test was repeated in the day after but performed without warming up. Capillary blood lactate concentration was assessed before and after the swimming test and the Borg ratings of perceived exertion scale was used. Without a previous warm-up, the mean ± SD values of maximum and mean forces were 299.62 ± 77.56 N and 91.65 ± 14.70 N, respectively. These values were different (p<0.05) from the values obtained with warm-up (351.33 ± 81.85 N and 103.97 ± 19.11 N). Differences were also observed when regarding to the forces relative to body mass. However, the values of lactate net concentrations after the test performed with and without warm-up were not different (6.27 ± 2.36 mmol·l(-1) and 6.18 ± 2.353 mmol·l (-1)) and the same occurs with the values of ratings of perceived exertion (15.90 ± 2.42 and 15.60 ± 2.27). These results suggest an improvement of the maximum and mean force of the swimmer on the tethered swimming due to previous warm-up.UBI/FCSH/Santander/2010info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Anthropometric characterization and muscle strength parameters in young female swimmers at national level: The relationship with performance in the 50m freestyle

The aim of this study was to characterize and compare the anthropometric characteristics and the explosive muscular strength of the upper and lower limbs in swimmers at the U-16 and U-15 level. In addition, the relationship between anthropometric characteristics, strength variables and performance in the 50 m freestyle was verified. All participants were analysed, regarding their anthropometric characteristics, their explosive muscle strength, and their performance in the 50 m freestyle swim. A total of 92 female swimmers (mean ± standard deviation: 14.08 ± 0.56 years old) participated in the study. The results showed that sub-16 swimmers had higher body mass values compared to sub-15 swimmers (p < .01). In addition, statistically significant differences were also found for upper limb strength indicators (p < .05). Finally, although no differences were found for performance in the 50 m freestyle test between the groups analysed, it was found that swimmers swam with different biomechanical patterns. It was concluded that although there were significant differences for the anthropometric indicators and explosive strength variables, the performance in the 50 m freestyle did not show any statistically significant variations, however the two groups of swimmers, swam with different biomechanical patterns.This work is supported by national funding through the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under project UID04045/2020

Energetics, biomechanics and performance in masters’ swimmers: a systematic review

This study aimed to summarize evidence on masters' swimmers energetics, biomechanics, and performance gathered in selected studies. An expanded search was conducted on 6 databases, conference proceedings, and department files. Fifteen studies were selected for further analysis. A qualitative evaluation of the studies based on the Quality Index (QI) was performed by 2 independent reviewers. The studies were thereafter classified into 3 domains according to the reported data: performance (10 studies), energetics (4 studies), and biomechanics (6 studies). The selected 15 articles included in this review presented low QI scores (mean score, 10.47 points). The biomechanics domain obtained higher QI (11.5 points), followed by energetics and performance (10.6 and 9.9 points, respectively). Stroke frequency (SF) and stroke length (SL) were both influenced by aging, although SF is more affected than SL. Propelling efficiency (ηp) decreased with age. Swimming performance declined with age. The performance declines with age having male swimmers deliver better performances than female counterparts, although this difference tends to be narrow in long-distance events. One single longitudinal study is found in the literature reporting the changes in performance over time. The remaining studies are cross-sectional designs focusing on the energetics and biomechanics. Overall, biomechanics parameters, such as SF, SL, and ηp, tend to decrease with age. This review shows the lack of a solid body of knowledge (reflected in the amount and quality of the articles published) on the changes in biomechanics, energetics, and performance of master swimmers over time. The training programs for this age-group should aim to preserve the energetics as much as possible and, concurrently, improve the technique. Training sessions should feature a higher percentage of technical drills with the goal of enhancing the swim technique. Another goal should be the association of technique enhancement with aerobic and anaerobic sets, enabling the swimmer to improve the swimming efficiency.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

A Systematic Review

Background In team sports, it is imperative that the warm-up improves acute explosive performance. However, the exact strategies, methods, and consequences of different warm-up practices remain unclear. A time delay between the warm-up and match and during half-time could negate the positive metabolic effects of the warm-up. Objectives We conducted a systematic review to synthesize and analyze the potential effects of strategies during a warm-up (before match), post-warm-up (time between the end of warm-up and the start of a match), and re-warm-up (half-time break within a match) on explosive performance in team sports. Furthermore, we examined optimal warm-up strategies based on the included studies. [...]info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio