Power Profile Index: An Adjustable Metric for Load Monitoring in Road Cycling

Workload is calculated from exercise volume and intensity. In endurance sports, intensity has been measured using heart rate or RPE, giving rise to load indexes such as sRPE or TRIMP. In cycling, the advent of power meters led to new indexes, such as TSS. All these indexes have limitations, especially for high intensity exercise. Therefore, a new index for cycling is proposed, the Power Profile Index (PPi), which includes a weighting factor obtained from the relative exercise intensity and stage type. Using power data from 67 WorldTour cyclists and fatigue records in different stage types from 102 road cyclists, weighting factors for intensity and stage type were determined. Subsequently, the PPi was computed and compared to current indexes using data from a WorldTour team during the 2018 Tour de France. The proposed index showed a strong correlation with perceived fatigue as a function of stage type (R2 = 0.9996), as well as no differences in the load quantification in different types of stage profiles (p = 0.292), something that does not occur with other indexes such as TSS, RPE, or eTRIMP (p < 0.001). Therefore, PPi is a new index capable of quantifying the high intensity efforts that produce greater fatigue, as well as considering the stage type

Methodologies and effects of weight cutting approaches in Olympic Wrestling: a review

La Lucha fue un deporte fundamental en los Juegos Olímpicos antiguos y todavía hoy sigue siendo una de las modalidades más populares en el Juegos Olímpico modernos. Actualmente, la Lucha Olímpica es un deporte de combate basado en un sistema de categorías por pesos que trata de equilibrar el potencial físico entre rivales, y por consiguiente aumentar el porcentaje del rendimiento que depende de las habilidades técnico-tácticas y psicológicas que cada luchador demuestra sobre el tapiz. Este sistema de categorías por peso obliga a todos los luchadores a cumplir o “dar el peso” unas pocas horas antes del comienzo del torneo, por lo que a lo largo de las últimas décadas los luchadores han puesto en práctica numerosas estrategias y metodologías de reducción de la masa corporal de cara a este pesaje oficial. En esta revisión se describirán pormenorizadamente estas metodologías de pérdida abrupta de masa corporal, así como los efectos que estas estrategias tienen sobre el rendimiento físico de los luchadores. Igualmente, y en base a evidencias científicas, se realizarán propuestas de adecuación y actualización de este reglamento oficial, considerado por la mayor parte de los científicos y técnicos relacionados con esta modalidad como parcialmente desfasado y en ocasiones irracional.Wrestling was an important part of the ancient Olympic Games and is still one of the more popular events of the modern Olympic Games. Nowadays, this combat sport is based on a weight class system which aims to balance out the physical characteristics between wrestlers and therefore increase the percentage of performance that depends on technical and psychological skills. This weight class system requires all wrestlers to "make weight" few hours before the tournament begins, so that over the last decades the wrestlers have implemented numerous kinds of weight cutting approaches before the official weighing. In this review the authors aim to perform a detailed description of these weight cutting strategies and their effects on the physical fitness performance of the wrestlers Furthermore, and based on scientific data, there will be proposals for adapting and updating these official rules, considered by most scientists and coaches as partially outdated and sometimes irrational.peerReviewe

Aplicabilidad del perfil de potencia máximo en ciclismo profesional, valores normativos, efecto de la fatiga y desentrenamiento

Introducción: Inicialmente evaluamos la repetitividad del perfil de potencia récord (RPP) a lo largo de una temporada de ciclismo profesional. Para después, poder comparar las exigencias físicas y los indicadores de rendimiento de ciclistas profesionales masculinos de dos categorías diferentes (WorldTour [WT] y ProTeam [PT]) durante una gran vuelta ciclista, realizando un análisis global, por semana, con o sin fatiga previa acumulada, analizando a su vez la durabilidad y la repetitividad de los esfuerzos. Nuestro objetivo es analizar si estos marcadores difieren entre los ciclistas profesionales de dos niveles competitivos durante una Gran Vuelta (GV). Metodología y Resultados: Artículo I ‐ Se estudiaron 12 ciclistas (32,3 ± 4,8 años, 11 ± 5 años de experiencia en la categoría profesional, entre los que se encontraban varios corredores del top 3 y ganadores de una GV). Se evaluó la repetitividad del RPP para cada duración de esfuerzo durante diferentes períodos de la temporada (período de preparación, específico y competitivo). Una vez alcanzado el periodo específico y competitivo, el error de la medida del RPP es muy limitado para tiempos de exposición iguales o superiores a 5 min (SEM < 4%). Sin embargo, para tiempos de exposición inferiores a estos, o cuando solo se tienen en cuenta registros de entrenamiento, el error se incrementa considerablemente (SEM = 4.6 – 12.5%). Artículo II ‐ Se estudiaron un equipo WT (n = 8; 31,4 ± 5,4 años) y un equipo PT (n = 7; 26,9 ± 3,3 años) que completaron "La Vuelta a España 2020". Se registró la potencia (PO) de los participantes y se calcularon los requerimientos físicos y fisiológicos (kilojulios (kJ) gastados, puntuación de estrés de entrenamiento [Training Stress Score, TSS], tiempo de permanencia en diferentes rangos/zonas de PO y PO máxima media [MMP] para diferentes duraciones de esfuerzo). Los ciclistas WT alcanzaron una XII posición final individual superior que los PT (31 [rango intercuartil = 33] frente a 71 [59], P = 0,004). Los ciclistas WT mostraron valores medios de PO y gasto calórico superiores a sus compañeros PT, y pasaron más tiempo en valores de PO de alta intensidad (> 5,25 W∙Kg‐1) y zonas (91%‐120% del umbral de potencia funcional individualizado) (P < 0,05). Aunque no se encontraron diferencias en los valores de MMP en el análisis general (P > 0,05), los subanálisis revelaron que la diferencia entre los grupos aumentó a medida que avanzaba la GV, alcanzando los ciclistas WT mayores valores de MMP para esfuerzos de 5 min en la segunda y tercera semana (P < 0,05). Artículo III ‐ Estudiamos a 8 ciclistas WT y 7 PT que compitieron en 'La Vuelta a España 2020'. La durabilidad se evaluó con los valores medios de MMP alcanzados entre 5 s ‐ 30 min después de completar diferentes niveles de trabajo (0 ‐ 35 kJ∙kg‐1). La repetitividad se evaluó como la capacidad de repetir esfuerzos > 95% MMP. Aunque no se encontraron diferencias en cuanto a la durabilidad durante las tres semanas de carrera (p = 0,209), sí se identificó una interacción significativa en los análisis por semanas (p = 0,011). Así, durante la primera semana y en estado "fresco" (0 kJ∙kg‐1), los ciclistas WT solo alcanzaron valores de MMP significativamente mayores para los esfuerzos de 30 min. Sin embargo, estas diferencias aumentaron con la acumulación de niveles de fatiga (p. ej., valores de MMP significativamente superiores en los ciclistas WT para esfuerzos de 30 s, 1, 5, 20 y 30 min después de 35 kJ∙kg‐1). No se encontraron diferencias entre grupos en la repetitividad para toda la carrera (p = 0,777), ni tampoco en análisis por semanas (p = 0,808). Conclusiones: Los resultados del primer artículo sugieren que el RPP es un parámetro repetible para monitorizar los registros de entrenamiento y competición en condiciones de campo. En el segundo y tercer estudio, hemos podido observar, que los corredores WT XIII pedalean más tiempo a altas intensidades, generan mayor gasto calórico y PO media que los ciclistas PT durante una GV. Aunque los valores más altos de MMP alcanzados durante toda la carrera podrían no diferenciar a los ciclistas WT de los PT en condiciones de “no fatiga”, los ciclistas WT son capaces de mantener valores superiores de MMP a medida que avanza la GV. En resumen, estos resultados apoyan el papel de la durabilidad (pero no de la repetitividad) como indicador clave de rendimiento durante las competiciones del ciclismo profesional.Introduction and Objectives: We initially evaluated the repeatability of the record power profile (RPP) over the course of a professional cycling season. We then compare the physical demands and performance indicators of male professional cyclists from 2 different categories (WorldTour [WT] and ProTeam [PT]) during a grand tour overall, for each week, with or without previous accumulated work, analysing durability and repeatability, which seem to be emerging as determinants of performance in professional cycling. Our aim is to analyse whether these markers differ between professional cyclists at two competitive levels during a Grand Tour. Methods and Results: Article ‐ This study assessed the repeatability of the record power profile (RPP) throughout a professional cycling season. We studied 12 cyclists (age 32.3 ± 4.8 years, 11 ± 5 years of experience in the professional category, including several top‐3 finishers and winners of a Grand Tour). The repeatability of the RPP for each effort duration was assessed during different periods of the season (preparation, specific, and competition period, respectively). Once the specific or competitive period has been reached, the error of the measurement associated to the RPP is very limited for long‐duration efforts equal to or greater than 5 min (SEM < 4%). However, for shorter duration efforts, or when only training records are taken into account, the error considerably increases (SEM = 4.6 – 12.5%). Article 2 ‐ We studied WT team (n = 8, 31.4 ± 5.4 y) and a PT team (n = 7; 26.9 ± 3.3 y) that completed “La Vuelta 2020” volunteered to participate. Participants’ power output (PO) was registered, and measures of physical demand and physiological performance (kilojoules spent, training stress score, time spent at different PO bands/zones, and mean maximal PO [MMP] for different exertion durations) were computed. Results: WT achieved a XVI higher final individual position than PT (31 [interquartile range = 33] vs. 71 [59], P = 0,004). WT cyclists showed higher mean PO and kilojoule values than their PT peers and spent more time at high‐intensity PO values (> 5.25 W∙kg‐1) and zones (91%–120% of individualized functional threshold power) (Ps < 0,05). Although no differences were found for MMP values in the overall analysis (P > 0,05), sub analyses revealed that the between‐groups gap increased through the race, with WT cyclists reaching higher MMP values for 5‐minute efforts in the second and third weeks (P < 0,05). Article 3 ‐ We studied 8 WT and 7 PT cyclists who competed in ‘La Vuelta 2020’. Durability was assessed with the mean maximal power (MMP) values attained between 5 s ‐ 30 min after different levels of mechanical work done (0 ‐ 35 kJ∙kg‐1). Repeatability was assessed as the ability to repeat efforts > 95% MMP. Although no differences were found for durability during the whole race (p = 0,209), a significant interaction effect was found in separate analyses by week (p = 0,011). Thus, during the first week and in the ‘fresh’ state (0 kJ∙kg‐1), WT cyclists solely attained significantly higher MMP values for 30‐min efforts. However, these differences enlarged with accumulating levels of fatigue (e.g., significantly higher MMP values in WT cyclists for 30‐ sec, 1‐min, 5‐min, 20‐min and 30‐min efforts after 35 kJ∙kg‐1). On the other hand, no between‐group differences were found in repeatability for the whole race (P = 0,777) or in separate analyses by week (P = 0.808). Conclusions: The findings of this first study suggest that the RPP is a repeatable parameter for monitoring field‐based repeatable outcomes under similar conditions. In the second and third, we have observed, WT cyclists spend more time at high intensities and show higher kilojoules and mean PO than their PT referents during a grand tour. Although the highest MMP values attained during the whole race might not differentiate between XVII WT and PT cyclists in “non‐fatigued” conditions, the former achieves higher MMP values as the race progresses. In summary, the present results support the role of durability (but not of repeatability) as a performance indicator during professional cycling races

Metodologías y efectos de las caídas de peso en lucha olímpica: una revisión

Wrestling was an important part of the ancient Olympic Games and is still one of the more popular events of the modern Olympic Games. Nowadays, this combat sport is based on a weight class system which aims to balance out the physical characteristics between wrestlers and therefore increase the percentage of performance that depends on technical and psychological skills. This weight class system requires all wrestlers to "make weight" few hours before the tournament begins, so that over the last decades the wrestlers have implemented numerous kinds of weight cutting approaches before the official weighing. In this review the authors aim to perform a detailed description of these weight cutting strategies and their effects on the physical fitness performance of the wrestlers. Furthermore, and based on scientific data, there will be proposals for adapting and updating these official rules, considered by most scientists and coaches as partially outdated and sometimes irrational.La Lucha fue un deporte fundamental en los Juegos Olímpicos antiguos y todavía hoy sigue siendo una de las modalidades más populares en el Juegos Olímpico modernos. Actualmente, la Lucha Olímpica es un deporte de combate basado en un sistema de categorías por pesos que trata de equilibrar el potencial físico entre rivales, y por consiguiente aumentar el porcentaje del rendimiento que depende de las habilidades técnico-tácticas y psicológicas que cada luchador demuestra sobre el tapiz. Este sistema de categorías por peso obliga a todos los luchadores a cumplir o �dar el peso� unas pocas horas antes del comienzo del torneo, por lo que a lo largo de las últimas décadas los luchadores han puesto en práctica numerosas estrategias y metodologías de reducción de la masa corporal de cara a este pesaje oficial. En esta revisión se describirán pormenorizadamente estas metodologías de pérdida abrupta de masa corporal, así como los efectos que estas estrategias tienen sobre el rendimiento físico de los luchadores. Igualmente, y en base a evidencias científicas, se realizarán propuestas de adecuación y actualización de este reglamento oficial, considerado por la mayor parte de los científicos y técnicos relacionados con esta modalidad como parcialmente desfasado y en ocasiones irracional

Physical Demands and Performance Indicators in Male Professional Cyclists During a Grand Tour: WorldTour Versus ProTeam Category

Purpose: To compare the physical demands and performance indicators of male professional cyclists of 2 different categories (Union Cycliste Internationale WorldTour [WT] and ProTeam [PT]) during a cycling grand tour. Methods: A WT team (n = 8, 31.4 [5.4] y) and a PT team (n = 7, 26.9 [3.3] y) that completed "La Vuelta 2020" volunteered to participate. Participants' power output (PO) was registered, and measures of physical demand and physiological performance (kilojoules spent, training stress score, time spent at different PO bands/zones, and mean maximal PO [MMP] for different exertion durations) were computed. Results: WT achieved a higher final individual position than PT (31 [interquartile range = 33] vs 71 [59], P = .004). WT cyclists showed higher mean PO and kilojoule values than their PT peers and spent more time at high-intensity PO values (>5.25 W·kg-1) and zones (91%-120% of individualized functional threshold power) (Ps .05), subanalyses revealed that the between-groups gap increased through the race, with WT cyclists reaching higher MMP values for ≥5-minute efforts in the second and third weeks (Ps < .05). Conclusions: Despite the multifactorial nature of cycling performance, WT cyclists spend more time at high intensities and show higher kilojoules and mean PO than their PT referents during a grand tour. Although the highest MMP values attained during the whole race might not differentiate between WT and PT cyclists, the former achieve higher MMP values as the race progresses.Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and Fondos Feder (grant PI18/00139)4.010 JCR (2020) Q1, 22/88 Sport Sciences2.278 SJR (2020) Q1, 8/288 Orthopedics and Sports MedicineNo data IDR 2020UE

The Tour de France, also possible for mortals? A comparison of a recreational and a World Tour cyclist

Cycling Grand Tours are arguably the epitome of strenuous endurance exercise, and they have been reported to represent the ceiling of sustained energy expenditure for humans. It remains unknown, however, if an average recreational athlete could endure such an event. Through the analysis of power output (PO), we compared data from the 2023 Tour de France (21 stages, total distance = 3,405 km, elevation gain = 51,815 m) in a recreational (male, age = 58 yr; height = 191 cm; body mass = 96.1 kg; estimated maximum oxygen uptake = 45.4 mLkg(-1)min(-1)) and a sex-matched professional (World-Tour) cyclist (28 yr; 180 cm; 67.0 kg; 80.5 mLkg(-1)min(-1)). The recreational and professional cyclist completed the event in 191 and 87 h, respectively (average PO of 1.50 and 3.45 Wkg(-1)), with the latter spending a greater proportion of time in high-intensity zones. The recreational cyclist showed an estimated total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) of 35.9 MJ [or 8,580 kcal, or similar to 4.3x his daily basal metabolic rate (BMR)], whereas lower absolute values were estimated for the professional cyclist (29.7 MJ, 7,098 kcal, similar to 3.8x his BMR). Despite such high TDEE values, both individuals lost minimal body mass during the event (0-2 kg). The present report therefore suggests that, partly due to differences in exercise intensity and duration, not only professional cyclists but also recreational athletes can reach currently known ceilings of TDEE for humans. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This case report indicates that a recreationally trained 58-year-old man can reach similar or even higher values of energy expenditure (similar to 4 times their basal metabolic rate) than professional cyclists, who are likely near the ceiling of sustained energy expenditure for humans. This was possible owing to a total longer exercise time coupled with a lower absolute and relative intensity in the recreational athlete.Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and Fondos Feder3.3 Q2 JCR 20221.042 Q1 SJR 2023No data IDRUE

Ambient Temperature and Field-Based Cycling Performance: Insights From Male and Female Professional Cyclists

Purpose: Ambient temperature affects endurance exercise performance. However, most research has been conducted in a laboratory-based setting, and whether there are sex-specific trends remains unclear. The present study aimed to analyze the influence of ambient temperature on cycling performance in male and female professional cyclists using field-based data collected during both training and racing. Methods: A total of 74 cyclists (48 male and 26 female; age 29 [5] y, 8 [5] y of experience in the professional category) were included in the analyses. We registered the participants' record power profile using data from both training and competitions over 8 years (2013-2020; 8 [5] seasons per cyclist). We analyzed their mean maximal power (MMP) values attained for efforts lasting 5 seconds, 30 seconds, 5 minutes, and 20 minutes at ambient temperatures ranging from 35°C. Results: A significant influence of ambient temperature on MMP values was found in male and female cyclists (P 35°C of -18% to -9% and -16% to -9%, respectively). Conclusions: Ambient temperature influences field-based cycling performance, following a reverse U-shaped relationship, with the highest MMP values attained in the range of ∼10°C to 25°C and with no major differences between sexes.Sin financiación4.010 JCR (2020) Q1, 22/88 Sport Sciences2.278 SJR (2020) Q1, 8/288 Orthopedics and Sports MedicineNo data IDR 2020UE

Between-Seasons Variability of Cyclists' Peak Performance: A Longitudinal Analysis of "Real-World" Power Output Data in Male Professional Cyclists

Purpose: The record power profile (RPP) has gained popularity as a method of monitoring endurance cycling performance. However, the expected variation of cyclists' performance between seasons remains unknown. We aimed to assess the between-seasons variability of peak performance (assessed through the RPP) in male professional cyclists. Methods: The study followed a longitudinal observational design. Sixty-one male professional cyclists (age 26 [5] y) with power output data from both training sessions and competitions were analyzed for a median of 4 consecutive seasons (range 2-12). The highest mean maximum power values attained for different durations (from 10 s to 30 min), as well as the resulting critical power, were determined for each season. Within-cyclist variability between seasons was assessed, and the upper threshold of expected changes (ie, twice the normal coefficient of variation) was determined. Results: All mean maximum power values showed an overall high agreement and low variability between seasons (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = .76-.88 and coefficient of variation [CV] = 3.2%- 5.9%), with the lowest variability observed for long efforts (>1 min). Critical power showed an ICC and CV of .79 (95% CI, .70-.85) and 3.3% (95% CI, 3.0%-3.7%), respectively. Upper thresholds of expected variation were 12% and >8%, respectively, being infrequent for these effort durations.Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CD21/00138)Spanish Government. Spanish Ministry of Economy and CompetitivenessFondos FEDER (PI18/00139)3.3 Q2 JCR 20221.333 Q1 SJR 2022No data IDR 2022UE

Durability and repeatability of professional cyclists during a Grand Tour

Durability and repeatability (i.e. the ability to sustain high power output values under fatigue and to endure repeated high-intensity efforts, respectively) are emerging as cycling performance determinants. We aimed to analyze whether these markers differ between professional cyclists of two competition levels (WorldTour [WT] and Proteam [PT]) during a Grand Tour. We studied 8 WT and 7 PT cyclists who competed in “La Vuelta 2020”. Durability was assessed with the mean maximal power (MMP) values attained between 5 sec–30 min after different levels of mechanical work done (0–35 kJ·kg−1). Repeatability was assessed as the ability to repeat efforts >95% MMP. Although no differences were found for durability during the whole race (p=0.209), a significant interaction effect was found in separate analyses by week (p=0.011). Thus, during the first week and in the “fresh” state (0 kJ·kg−1), WT cyclists solely attained significantly higher MMP values for 30-min efforts. However, these differences enlarged with accumulating levels of fatigue (e.g. significantly higher MMP values in WT cyclists for 30-sec, 1-min, 5-min, 20-min and 30-min efforts after 35 kJ·kg−1). On the other hand, no between-group differences were found in repeatability for the whole race (p = 0.777) or in separate analyses by week (p = 0.808). In summary, the present results support the role of durability (but not of repeatability) as a performance indicator during professional cycling races.4.050 JCR (2020) Q1, 21/88 Sport Sciences1.252 SJR (2020) Q1, 382/2448 Medicine (miscellaneous)No data IDR 2020UE

Field-Derived Maximal Power Output in Cycling: An Accurate Indicator of Maximal Performance Capacity?

Purpose: To determine the validity of field-derived mean maximum power (MMP) values for monitoring maximal cycling endurance performance. Methods: Twenty-seven male professional cyclists performed 3 timed trials (TTs) of 1-, 5-, and 20-minute duration that were used as the gold standard reference. Field-based power output data (3336 files; 124 [25] per cyclist) were registered during the preparatory (60 d pre-TT, including training data only) and specific period of the season (60 d post-TT, including both training and competitions). Comparisons were made between TT performance (mean power output) and MMP values obtained for efforts of the same duration as TT (MMP of 1-, 5-, and 20-min duration). The authors also compared TT- and MMP-derived values of critical power (CP) and anaerobic work capacity. Results: A large correlation (P .65) was found between MMP and TT performance regardless of the effort duration or season period. However, considerable differences (P 5%) were found between MMP and TT values for all effort durations in the preparatory period, as well as for the derived CP and anaerobic work capacity. Significant differences were also found between MMP and TT of 1 minute in the specific period, as well as for anaerobic work capacity, yet with no differences for MMP of 5- and 20-minute duration or the derived CP (P > .05, SEM < 5%). Conclusion: MMP values (for efforts ≥5 min) and the associated CP obtained from both training sessions and competitions can be considered overall accurate indicators of the cyclist's maximal capabilities, but specific tests might be necessary for shorter efforts or when considering training sessions only.Sin financiación4.211 JCR (2021) Q1, 20/88 Sport Sciences1.623 SJR (2021) Q1, 11/294 Orthopedics and Sports MedicineNo data IDR 2021UE