Microbe Penetration Levels on Facial Masks Fabricated at the University of Dodoma versus the Surgical Ones

Background: Coronavirus disease 2019 is a pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The outbreak was first identified in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China in December 2019, and was recognized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March 2020. The virus primarily spreads among people via respiratory droplets from coughing, breathing, or sneezing. To reduce virus transmission, close contact between people is discouraged. In response to advice by health practitioners, individuals are advised to wear face masks, regularly wash their hands, and apply sanitisers. However, the effectiveness of locally manufactured masks against COVID 19 and other microbes has not been investigated. Aims and methods: The current study aimed to experimentally determine and compare the effectiveness of two approved surgical masks and two face masks fabricated at the University of Dodoma (UDOM). Results: The effectiveness of the UDOM-made mask was similar when compared to surgical masks (Mann- Whitney, U = 390.000, p > 0.05; Mean ranks: Japan fabric = 32.5; N95 surgical mask = 28.50). However, the Japan fabric mask made at UDOM was more effective than BBL surgical mask made in China (Mann-Whitney, U = 270.000, p < 0.05; Mean ranks: Japan fabric = 24.50; BBL surgical mask = 36.50). Whereas the handkerchief mask made at UDOM and BBL surgical mask had similar levels of effectiveness (Mann-Whitney, U = 369.500, p > 0.05; Mean Ranks: Handkerchief = 27.82; BBL surgical mask = 33.18). The results obtained suggest that the two UDOM types were as effective as the N95 and BBL masks in reducing virus spread. Conclusion: The study recommends the determination of pore sizes of the materials used to make the mask to explain the effectiveness of the single layer, double layers, and double layers with cotton blends in the prevention of different microbes inhalable.   &nbsp

Populationsstruktur, Bewegungen und Gesundheitszustand der Elefanten und anderer Wildtiere im Selous-Niassa Wildtier Korridor, Südtansania

Titel, Contents, Table and Figure Index, Abbreviations 1\. Introduction 2\. Literature Review 3\. Material and Methods 4\. Results 5\. Discussion 6\. Summary 7\. Zusammenfassung 8\. References Appendices and AcknowledgementsThis study assessed the status and importance of the Selous Niassa Wildlife Corridor (SNWC) in southern Tanzania as a conservation area and biological corridor for wildlife, principally the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and other key wildlife species. The distribution and movements of elephants and other wildlife species, their population structure and population size and the potential sources of conflicts between people and wildlife were investigated by a novel combination of local knowledge of wildlife, own field observations, and advanced technology including satellite-based location and tracking of radio-collared individual elephants. The following results emanated from this study; The SNWC harboured at least 2,400 African elephants and a globally significant population of at least 4,460 Roosevelt's sable antelope. Other key wildlife species such as eland (Taurotragus oryx), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Liechtenstein's hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus lichtensteinii) and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) were also present throughout the Corridor. However, there is also some evidence that wildlife populations have experienced declines as evidenced by fragmented distribution, and virtually disappearance of some wildlife species originally present. The SNWC contains numerous forest, bushed grassland, woodland and wetland areas that are important seasonal or year-round refuge habitats for elephants and other wildlife species. The widely reported conflict between people and wildlife was crop damages which was claimed to be a common cause of significant reduction of crop yield. Several wildlife species were considered to be involved. Interviewed people and governmental records reported damage by elephants, hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius), buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and sable antelope. However, analysis of reports on the extent of crop damage attributed to each species and data from satellite-based tracking of radio-collared elephants indicated that only a small proportion of crop damage could be attributed to elephants. Large proportion of crop damage was attributed by weeds, crop diseases and "small pest species" such as rodents or birds. The distribution and movements of elephants were assessed by ground observation and satellite-based telemetry of radio-collared elephants. Three major movement routes from the Ruvuma river to the centre of the Corridor, and four other routes from the centre of the Corridor towards the north were identified. Satellite-based tracking and field observations confirmed that elephants used these routes for their movements, ultimately connecting the Ruvuma River with the Selous Game Reserve at the northern end of the Corridor. The major elephant movement routes that were revealed by satellite-based tracking were known to local people. Data from satellite-based tracking were used to determine habitat preferences and home ranges and to trace movements across international borders. Ten radio-collared elephants (2 cows and 8 bulls) were tracked for periods from 8 to 24 months. During both dry and wet season, elephants significantly preferred forests, bushed grasslands and riverine areas and avoided cultivated areas. During the dry season, elephants also preferred woodland; during the wet season they also avoided swamps. Home range sizes varied between 328 and 6,905 km2. Observed home range sizes fell into three groups: small home ranges (328 to 576 km2), medium home ranges (1494 to 3,135 km2) and large home ranges (from 4,421 to 6,905 km2). Elephants with small home ranges spent their time mostly in areas between the Selous Game Reserve and the adjoining buffer zone at the northern end of the Corridor. Elephants with medium sized home ranges stayed in the central areas of the SNWC and occasionally visited Sasawala Forestry Reserve. Elephants with large home ranges moved across the central and southern sections of the SNWC, with extensive movements between Tanzania and Mozambique, and within Mozambique. Extensive movements of elephants were reported by local interviewees to occur in the months of March and April and June and December. Satellite tracking however showed extensive movements to occur during November and December and limited mobility between March and May. Food, access to water and possibly repeated contact with people in some localities are considered to be factors likely to influence elephant movements. Data from ground-based observations and satellite-based telemetry confirmed that elephants frequently moved across the international border between Tanzania and Mozambique along the Ruvuma River. These data support the importance of protecting the SNWC as an important elephant range and corridor, linking two of the largest protected areas in Africa, the Selous and Niassa Game Reserves in Tanzania and Mozambique, respectively.Diese Studie bewertet den Status und die Bedeutung des Selous-Niassa Wildtier Korridors (SNWC) in Südtansania als Naturschutzgebiet und als biologischen Korridor für Wildtiere, hauptsächlich für den afrikanischen Elefanten (Loxodonta africana) und anderer Schlüsselarten. Die Verbreitung und die Raumnutzung der Elefanten und anderer Wildtierarten, ihre Populationsstruktur und �größe und die potentiellen Konfliktquellen wurden mit Hilfe eines neuartigen Forschungsansatzes erhoben, bei dem wir die Ermittlung des örtlichen Wissens über Wildtiere, mit eigenen Feldbeobachtungen und dem Einsatz von hochentwickelter, Satelliten-unterstützter Telemetrie zur Ortung von Elefanten kombiniert, die mit einem Halsbandsender versehen waren. Die folgenden Ergebnisse wurden ermittelt; Der SNWC ist die Heimat von mindestens 2.400 Afrikanischen Elefanten und einer global bedeutenden Population von mindestens 4.460 Roosevelt Rappenantilopen. Andere Schlüsselarten wie Elenantilope (Taurotragus oryx), Großkudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Kuhantilope (Alcelaphus buselaphus lichtensteinii) und Afrikanische Wildehunde (Lycaon pictus) waren im Korridor weit verbreitet. Es gibt allerdings auch Anzeichen dafür, dass einige Wildtierpopulationen einen Rückgang erfahren mussten, wie durch die fragmentierte Verbreitung und das nahezu vollständige Verschwinden einiger Tierarten gezeigt wurde. Der SNWC beherbergt zahlreiche Galeriewälder, verbuschtes Grasland und Feuchtgebiete, die bedeutende saisonale oder ganzjährige Rückzugshabitate für Elefanten und andere Wildtiere sind. Wildtiere wurden häufig für substantielle Ernteschäden verantwortlich gemacht, die das ganze Jahre auftreten könnten. Verschiedene Wildtierarten seien daran beteiligt. Interviewergebnisse und Regierungsunterlagen stellten fest, dass der Schaden durch Elefanten, Flusspferde (Hippopotamus amphibius), Büffel (Syncerus caffer) und Rappenantilopen verursacht würde. Im Gegensatz zu diesen Behauptungen belegten die quantitative Analyse der Regierungsunterlagen und die Ergebnisse der Satelliten-unterstützten Telemetrie, dass Elefanten sehr wenig beteiligt sind. Der weitaus größere Teil der Ernteschäden wurde durch Unkraut, Krankheiten der Anbaupflanzen und kleinen Schädlingen (Nagetiere oder Vögel) verursacht. Die Verbreitung und Raumnutzung von Elefanten wurden auf der Grundlage von Bodenzählungen und der Satelliten- unterstützten Telemetrie von besenderten Elefanten analysiert. Wir fanden drei große Wanderrouten vom Ruvuma-Fluss zum Zentrum des Korridors und vier weitere Routen vom Zentrum des Korridors in Richtung Norden. Die Satelliten- unterstützte Telemetrie und Feldbeobachtungen bestätigten, dass die Elefanten diese Routen für ihre Ortsbewegungen nutzten und dabei letztlich den Ruvuma- Fluss mit dem Selous-Wildtier-Reservat im Norden verknüpften. Die wichtigen Wanderrouten, die die besenderten Elefanten nutzten, wurden korrekt durch Einheimische vorhergesagt. Die Ergebnisse der Satelliten-unterstützten Telemetrie wurden auch eingesetzt, um Habitatpräferenzen und Streifgebiete zu bestimmen und Ortsbewegungen über die internationale Grenze zu verfolgen. Zehn �besenderte� Elefanten (2 Kühe und 8 Bullen) wurden in einem Zeitraum von 8 bis 24 Monaten telemetriert. Während beider Jahreszeiten (Trocken- und Regenzeit) bevorzugten Elefanten signifikant Galeriewälder, verbuschtes Grasland und Flussgebiete. Sie vermieden eindeutig Ackerbaugebiete. Während der Trockenzeit bevorzugten die Elefanten auch Miombo-Waldgebiete; während der Regenzeit vermieden sie außerdem Sumpfgebiete. Die Größen der Streifgebiete variierten zwischen 328 und 6.905 km². Aufgrund ihrer Größe können die Streifgebiete in drei Klassen eingeteilt werden: kleine (328 bis 576 km²), mittlere (1494 bis 3.135 km²) und große Streifgebiete (von 4.421 bis 6905 km²). Elefanten mit kleinen Streifgebieten pendelten meistens zwischen dem Selous-Wildtier-Reservat und der angrenzenden Pufferzone. Elefanten mit einem mittleren Streifgebiet verblieben im Zentrum des SNWC und besuchten gelegentlich das Sasawala-Forst-Reservat. Elefanten mit großen Streifgebiet bewegten sich in der Mitte und im Süden des SNWC mit ausgedehnten Ortsbewegungen über die Grenze zwischen Tansania und Mosambik und auch auf der Mosambikanischen Seite. Interviewantworten sprachen von ausgedehnten Wanderungen der Elefanten in den Monaten März, April, Juni und Dezember. Die Satelliten-unterstützte Telemetrie zeigte jedoch, dass ausgedehnte Ortsbewegungen in den Monaten November und Dezember erfolgten und sich die Elefanten besonders wenig während der Regenzeit zwischen März und Mai bewegten. Nahrung, Zugang zu Wasser und möglicherweise wiederholter Kontakt mit Menschen in einigen Gegenden werden als die Faktoren betrachtet, die die Raumnutzung der Elefanten beeinflussen. Die Daten aus den Feldbeobachtungen und der Satelliten-unterstützten Telemetrie bestätigten, dass Elefanten häufig die internationale Grenze zwischen Tansania und Mosambik entlang des Ruvuma Flusses überqueren. Diese Ergebnisse betonen die Wichtigkeit des Schutzes des SNWC als einem bedeutenden Streifgebiet und Korridor für Elefanten, das zwei riesige Schutzgebiete in Afrika verbindet, nämlich das Selous Wildtier- Reservat in Tansania und das Niassa-Wildtier-Reservat in Mosambik

Seasonal movements and habitat use of African buffalo in Ruaha National Park, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND:Assessing wildlife movements and habitat use is important for species conservation and management and can be informative for understanding population dynamics. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) population of Ruaha National Park, Tanzania has been declining, and little was known about the movement, habitat selection, and space use of the population, which is important for understanding possible reasons behind the decline. A total of 12 African buffalo cows from four different herds were collared with satellite transmitters. Movements were assessed over 2 years from 11 animals. RESULTS:The space use of the individual collared buffaloes as an approximation of the 95% home range size estimated using Brownian bridge models, ranged from 73 to 601 km2. The estimated home ranges were larger in the wet season than in the dry season. With the exception of one buffalo all collared animals completed a wet season migration of varying distances. A consistent pattern of seasonal movement was observed with one herd, whereas the other herds did not behave the same way in the two wet seasons that they were tracked. Herd splitting and herd switching occurred on multiple occasions. Buffaloes strongly associated with habitats near the Great Ruaha River in the dry season and had little association to permanent water sources in the wet season. Daily movements averaged 4.6 km (standard deviation, SD = 2.6 km), with the longest distances traveled during November (mean 6.9 km, SD = 3.6 km) at the end of the dry season and beginning of the wet season. The shortest daily distances traveled occurred in the wet season in April-June (mean 3.6 km, SD = 1.6-1.8 km). CONCLUSION:The Great Ruaha River has experienced significant drying in the last decades due to water diversions upstream, which likely has reduced the suitable range for buffaloes. The loss of dry season habitat due to water scarcity has likely contributed to the population decline of the Ruaha buffaloes

Health and demographics of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in Ruaha National Park, Tanzania

Presented at the 9th international wildlife ranching symposium: wildlife - the key to prosperity for rural communities, held on 12-16 September 2016 at Hotel Safari & the Safari Court, Windhoek, Namibia in conjuction with the IUCN 2nd African Buffalo Symposium.The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) population of Ruaha National Park may be in decline. Seasonal drying of the park's water source due to upstream irrigation may have caused loss of dry season habitat, increased pressure on remaining water sources, and possibly increased contact between wildlife and livestock at the park borders. The Health for Animals and Livelihood Improvement (HALI) project and Ruaha National Park are collaborating to investigate the health and population status of the African buffaloes. Between 2011 and 2015, this partnership resulted in testing 30 young and 25 adult African buffaloes for bovine tuberculosis (2011, 2014-15), conducting 4 dry season demographic surveys and herd level parasite screenings (2011, 2013-15), and conducting one aerial population survey in collaboration with the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (2013). In 2014-15, 12 adult female buffaloes were collared with satellite GPS collars to learn more about the seasonal movements, habitat preferences, and herd dynamics of Ruaha's buffalo herds. The research has shown that bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis is present in the buffalo population, that the population number appear to be reduced since the last total count in 2004, that the herd composition and seasonal movements may be influenced by rainfall, and the herd level gastrointestinal parasite counts generally are low. The data generated in this study will be used to inform management and conservation of Ruaha National Park's buffaloes

Profile of plasma lipids and degree of derangements among the elderly of Morogoro region, Tanzania

Changes in lifestyles and ageing have been associated with growing rates of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (CRF). Dyslipidemia is one of the CRF associated with numbers of cardiovascular diseases. This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the profile and degree of derangements of plasma lipids among 300 (176 females and 124 males) elderly individuals aged ≥60 years in Morogoro, Tanzania. The calorimetric enzymatic methods and the Friedewal’s equation were used for determination of cholesterols and triglycerides (TG). Social and demographic characteristics were gathered by structured questionnaires. The logistic regression models were used to identify the determinants of abnormal serum lipids level. Mean Total Cholesterols (TC) and Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterols (LDL-C) in females exceeded significantly that of males. Mean TC, LDL-C as well as TG (mg/dL) declined significantly with age while mean High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterols (HDL-C) also declined but only slightly. Elderly females were two times more likely to have elevated TC (OR=2.11; 95% CI: 1.04-4.28: P=0.05) and LDL-C (OR=2.15; 95% CI: 1.17-3.97: P=0.019) and three times to have lowered HDL-C (OR=3; 95% CI: 1.97-5.30: P<0.001) than males. Urban residents were about two times more likely to have elevated LDL-C (OR=1.84; 95% CI: 1.04-3.25: P=0.047) than their rural counterparts. Body Mass Index of ≥30 kg/m2 was also associated with elevated LDL-C (OR=1.89; 95% CI: 1.05-3.42: P=0.045) and lowered HDL-C (OR=2.18; 95% CI: 1.3-3.65: P=0.004), respectively. The present study has established the profile and level of derangements of serum lipids among the elderly of Morogoro region in Tanzania. It appears that, female sex and BMI of ≥ 30kg/m2 are significant factors for elevated TC, LDL-C and lowered HDL-C while urban life is a significant factor for elevated LDL-C

Hipertrofična osteopatija kao posljedica stranoga tijela u jednjaku psa - prikaz slučaja

Hypertrophic osteopathy is a pathological disease process that occurs secondary to intra thoracic lesions that are either pulmonary or non pulmonary in origin. A 6-year-old female German shepherd cross was presented with complaints of losing body condition, anorexia, lameness, and swollen limbs. Clinical examination revealed swelling of all four limbs which were hard and painless on palpation. Radiographic examination of the limbs and the thoracic cavity revealed, irregular periosteal new bone formation along the shafts of most of the long bones and an oval-shaped 6 cm diameter radio dense caudal mediastinal mass. At post-mortem examination, an oesophageal diverticulum was found, filled with foul smelling creamy exudates and a bone foreign body firmly adherent to the wall. Hypertrophic osteopathy secondary to oesophageal foreign body was diagnosed based on history, clinical examination, radiography, post-mortem picture and histopathology.Hipertrofična osteopatija patološki je proces koji se javlja sekundarno kao posljedica intratorakalnih lezija plućnog ili neplućnog podrijetla. Njemačka ovčarka u dobi od šest godina bila je primljena sa znakovima gubitka težine, anoreksije, šepanja i otečenih nogu. Kliničkom pretragom ustanovljene su tvrde, na palpaciju bezbolne otekline nogu. Radiografskom pretragom nogu i prsne šupljine ustanovljene su nepravilne periostealne novotvorine u većine dugih kostiju i ovalna radiološki gusta masa promjera šest cm u kaudalnom medijastinumu. Pri razudbi je ustanovljen divertikul jednjaka ispunjen pjenušavim eksudatom neugodna mirisa i koštano strano tijelo koje je čvrsto prianjalo na stijenku. Na osnovi anamneze, kliničke pretrage, radiografije, razudbe trupla i patohistološkoga nalaza dijagnosticirana je sekundarna hipertrofična osteopatija kao posljedica stranoga tijela u jednjak

The Influence of Life History Milestones and Association Networks on Crop-Raiding Behavior in Male African Elephants

Factors that influence learning and the spread of behavior in wild animal populations are important for understanding species responses to changing environments and for species conservation. In populations of wildlife species that come into conflict with humans by raiding cultivated crops, simple models of exposure of individual animals to crops do not entirely explain the prevalence of crop raiding behavior. We investigated the influence of life history milestones using age and association patterns on the probability of being a crop raider among wild free ranging male African elephants; we focused on males because female elephants are not known to raid crops in our study population. We examined several features of an elephant association network; network density, community structure and association based on age similarity since they are known to influence the spread of behaviors in a population. We found that older males were more likely to be raiders than younger males, that males were more likely to be raiders when their closest associates were also raiders, and that males were more likely to be raiders when their second closest associates were raiders older than them. The male association network had sparse associations, a tendency for individuals similar in age and raiding status to associate, and a strong community structure. However, raiders were randomly distributed between communities. These features of the elephant association network may limit the spread of raiding behavior and likely determine the prevalence of raiding behavior in elephant populations. Our results suggest that social learning has a major influence on the acquisition of raiding behavior in younger males whereas life history factors are important drivers of raiding behavior in older males. Further, both life-history and network patterns may influence the acquisition and spread of complex behaviors in animal populations and provide insight on managing human-wildlife conflict

Harnessing learning biases is essential for applying social learning in conservation

Social learning can influence how animals respond to anthropogenic changes in the environment, determining whether animals survive novel threats and exploit novel resources or produce maladaptive behaviour and contribute to human-wildlife conflict. Predicting where social learning will occur and manipulating its use are, therefore, important in conservation, but doing so is not straightforward. Learning is an inherently biased process that has been shaped by natural selection to prioritize important information and facilitate its efficient uptake. In this regard, social learning is no different from other learning processes because it too is shaped by perceptual filters, attentional biases and learning constraints that can differ between habitats, species, individuals and contexts. The biases that constrain social learning are not understood well enough to accurately predict whether or not social learning will occur in many situations, which limits the effective use of social learning in conservation practice. Nevertheless, we argue that by tapping into the biases that guide the social transmission of information, the conservation applications of social learning could be improved. We explore the conservation areas where social learning is highly relevant and link them to biases in the cues and contexts that shape social information use. The resulting synthesis highlights many promising areas for collaboration between the fields and stresses the importance of systematic reviews of the evidence surrounding social learning practices.BBSRC David Phillips Fellowship (BB/H021817/1

Repair Costs of Tractors and Comparison of Mechanization Strategies under Tanzanian Conditions

Landwirtschaft ist die Hauptstütze der Wirtschaft in Tansania. Die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität ist jedoch niedrig. Sie könnte durch Förderung der Produktivität erhöht werden. Während der letzten 30 Jahre wurde die Mechanisierung mit Traktoren von der Regierung als unangepasst betrachtet, obwohl sie sich in anderen Ländern als notwendig erwiesen hat. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist daher die Bestimmung der Faktoren eines effizienten Einsatzes von Traktoren für tansanische Verhältnisse. Eine Erhebung zeigt, dass in Tansania Betriebskosten von Traktoren höher sind als in Industrieländern. Der Besitz eines Traktors ist erst ab einer zu bewirtschaftenden Fläche von mindestens 100 ha/Jahr rentabel

Prevalence of claw lesions in free range short horn cattle (zebu) in Kwimba district, Tanzania

Claw lesions are the problems which affect the hoofed animals and may or may not result into lameness. In cattle, this is a disease of economical importance as it affects the animal wellbeing as well as the economy of the farmer. The disease has been shown to affect animals kept in different production systems, although much information is available from the intensive dairy units and beef in feedlot systems. Limited studies have investigated the problems of claw lesions in cattle under pastoral and agro-pastoral systems in Tanzania. The present study was carried out to determine the prevalence and characteristics of claw lesions in the free range cattle in Nyambiti Village Kwimba district in Mwanza. The study was carried out during dry and rainy season between 2014 and 2015. A total of 19 households were selected for study whereby 367 cattle were examined. A total of 206 cattle were examined during dry season and 161 during rainy season. The overall prevalence of the claw lesions was 7.6%. During the dry season, 13 (6.3%) cattle had claw lesions while during rainy season 15 (9.3%) cattle had claw lesions. The observed lesions traumatic injury, claw abscess, hoof overgrowth, inward and outward curved claw, laminitis, hardened groove and swelling of the coronary area, foot rot, interdigital dermatitis, heel erosion and double sole. Most of the lesions were realized in cows which accounted for 71.4% of all lesions. Hind legs had most of the claw lesions (82.1%). It is concluded that claw lesion is a problem in free range short horn zebu hence the farmers should be given proper information and advices on the claw problems as to how it occurs and the associated effects as well as management on animals.Keywords: Claws, Lesions, Free range, Zebu, Kwimba distric