Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942-1952

Between 1942 and 1952, some of Canada’s leading nutrition experts, in cooperation with various federal departments, conducted an unprecedented series of nutritional studies of Aboriginal communities and residential schools. The most ambitious and perhaps best known of these was the 1947-1948 James Bay Survey of the Attawapiskat and Rupert’s House Cree First Nations. Less well known were two separate long-term studies that went so far as to include controlled experiments conducted, apparently without the subjects’ informed consent or knowledge, on malnourished Aboriginal populations in Northern Manitoba and, later, in six Indian residential schools. This article explores these studies and experiments, in part to provide a narrative record of a largely unexamined episode of exploitation and neglect by the Canadian government. At the same time, it situates these studies within the context of broader federal policies governing the lives of Aboriginal peoples, a shifting Canadian consensus concerning the science of nutrition, and changing attitudes towards the ethics of biomedical experimentation on human beings during a period that encompassed, among other things, the establishment of the Nuremberg Code of experimental research ethics. Entre 1942 et 1952, certains des principaux spécialistes canadiens de la nutrition ont réalisé, en collaboration avec divers ministères fédéraux, une série sans précédent d’études nutritionnelles dans les communautés autochtones et les pensionnats indiens. La plus ambitieuse et peut-être la plus connue d’entre elles est l’enquête réalisée en 1947-1948 auprès des nations cries d’Attawapiskat et de Rupert House de la baie James. Mais ce qu’on savait moins, c’est que deux études à long terme distinctes étaient même allées jusqu’à faire des expériences contrôlées, apparemment sans leur consentement éclairé ou à leur insu, sur les populations souffrant de malnutrition du Nord du Manitoba et, plus tard, de six pensionnats indiens. L’article examine ces études et ces expériences pour, en partie, faire le compte rendu d’un épisode largement inexploré d’exploitation et de négligence par le gouvernement canadien. Il situe également ces études dans le cadre des politiques plus larges du gouvernement fédéral gouvernant la vie des peuples autochtones, de l’évolution du consensus canadien sur la science de la nutrition ainsi que du changement d’attitude face à l’éthique de l’expérimentation biomédicale chez l’être humain durant une période qui aura été témoin, entre autres choses, de l’établissement du Code de Nuremberg, qui précise les règles d’éthique à respecter pour faire de la recherche expérimentale sur l’être humain

Automated pastures and the digital divide: how agricultural technologies are shaping labour and rural communities

A “digital revolution” in agriculture is underway. Advanced technologies like sensors, artificial intelligence, and robotics are increasingly being promoted as a means to increase food production efficiency while minimizing resource use. In the process, agricultural digitalization raises critical social questions about the implications for diverse agricultural labourers and rural spaces as digitalization evolves. In this paper, we use literature and field data to outline some key trends being observed at the nexus of agricultural production, technology, and labour in North America, with a particular focus on the Canadian context. Using the data, we highlight three key tensions observed: rising land costs and automation; the development of a high-skill/low-skilled bifurcated labour market; and issues around the control of digital data. With these tensions in mind, we use a social justice lens to consider the potential implications of digital agricultural technologies for farm labour and rural communities, which directs our attention to racial exploitation in agricultural labour specifically. In exploring these tensions, we argue that policy and research must further examine how to shift the trajectory of digitalization in ways that support food production as well as marginalized agricultural labourers, while pointing to key areas for future research—which is lacking to date. We emphasize that the current enthusiasm for digital agriculture should not blind us to the specific ways that new technologies intensify exploitation and deepen both labour and spatial marginalization

Clearing the Plains and Changing the National Conversation: James Daschuk’s Clearing the Plains as a Work of Popular and Public History

This essay assesses the impressive public reaction to James Daschuk’s Clearing the Plains and offers some possible explanations for its success as a work of both academic and popular history.Le présent essai évalue l’impressionnante réaction du public à l’ouvrage Clearing the Plains de James Daschuk et tente d’expliquer le succès de cet ouvrage universitaire et d’histoire populaire

Clearing the Plains and Changing the National Conversation: James Daschuk’s Clearing the Plains as a Work of Popular and Public History

This essay assesses the impressive public reaction to James Daschuk’s Clearing the Plains and offers some possible explanations for its success as a work of both academic and popular history.Le présent essai évalue l’impressionnante réaction du public à l’ouvrage Clearing the Plains de James Daschuk et tente d’expliquer le succès de cet ouvrage universitaire et d’histoire populaire

Variability in the freshwater balance of northern Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula: results from δ18O

We investigate the seasonal variability in freshwater inputs to the Marguerite Bay region (Western Antarctic Peninsula) using a time series of oxygen isotopes in seawater from samples collected in the upper mixed layer of the ocean during 2002 and 2003. We find that meteoric water, mostly in the form of glacial ice melt, is the dominant freshwater source, accounting for up to 5% of the near-surface ocean during the austral summer. Sea ice melt accounts for a much smaller percentage, even during the summer (maximum around 1%). The seasonality in meteoric water input to the ocean (around 2% of the near-surface ocean) is not dissimilar to that of sea ice melt (around 2% in 2002 and 1% in 2003), contradicting the assumption that sea ice processes dominate the seasonal evolution of the physical ocean environment close to the Antarctic continent. Three full-depth profiles of oxygen isotopes collected in successive Decembers (2001, 2002 and 2003) indicate that around 4 m of meteoric water is present in the water column at this time of year, and around 1 m of sea ice formed from this same water column. The predominance of glacial melt is significant, since it is known to be an important factor in the operation of the ecosystem, for example by providing a source of nutrients and modifying the physical environment to control the spatial extent and magnitude of phytoplankton blooms. The Western Antarctic Peninsula is undergoing a very rapid change in climate, with increasing ocean and air temperatures, retreating glaciers and increases in precipitation associated with changes in atmospheric circulation. As climate change continues, we expect meteoric water inputs to the adjacent ocean to rise further. Sea ice in this sector of the Antarctic has shown a climatic decrease, thus we expect a reduction in oceanic sea ice melt fractions if this change continues. Continued monitoring of the oceanic freshwater budget at the western Peninsula is needed to track these changes as they occur, and to better understand their ecological consequences