Structure, Fonction et Evolution des Récepteurs Venus Kinase : rôles dans la reproduction du parasite Schistosoma mansoni

Venus Kinase Receptors (VKR) represent a new family of receptor tyrosine kinases discovered in the lab. These receptors are characterized by an atypical structure composed of an extracellular ligand binding domain called Venus Flytrap, similar to those of class C G- protein coupled receptors, and an intracellular Tyrosine Kinase domain, very close to those of Insulin Receptors. These proteins are exclusively found in invertebrate organisms including our lab model, the parasitic platyhelminth Schistosoma mansoni. Current data strongly suggest a function for these receptors in larval development and reproduction. My thesis project concerns the study of this receptor family and is divided into three parts:The first part consists in an update of the VKR family phylogeny. Analyses of recent genomic data have allowed us to extend the presence of VKR to 50 species present in five bilaterian phyla. The presence of one VKR in the early-branching metazoan Nematostella vectensis suggested that VKR arose before the bilaterian radiation. Phylogenetic and gene structure analyses showed that all receptors identified grouped monophyletically, and likely evolved from a common ancestor. Multiple alignments of tyrosine kinase (TK) and VFT domains indicated their important level of conservation in all VKRs identified up to date. We showed that VKRs had inducible activity upon binding of extracellular amino-acids and molecular modeling of the VFT domain confirmed the structure of the conserved amino-acid binding site.The second part of my thesis project concerns the functional characterization of SmVKR1 and SmVKR2, which are two VKRs of Schistosoma mansoni. Using the Xenopus oocyte model as a protein expression system, we have been able to determine that SmVKR1 and SmVKR2 are activated by distinct and different ligands. The identification of intracellular binding partners using yeast two hybrid experiments allowed us to determine unexpected interacting proteins, suggesting functions for SmVKRs in kinase signaling and cytoskeleton remodeling. If both receptors are able to activate Akt, S6K and Erk 1/2 pathways, only SmVKR1 triggers the activation of Jnk proteins. Expression patterns were determined by in situ hybridization and highlighted the presence of both SmVKR1 and smVKR2 transcripts in the ovary. However, their localization within the ovary is different, with SmVKR1 transcripts detected exclusively in the anterior part of the ovary while SmVKR2 transcripts were found in the posterior part that only contains immature oocytes. RNA interference experiments further confirmed the importance of SmVKR proteins in oogenesis, since the knockdown of every gene led to the appearance of deleterious phenotypes in the ovary. Taken together, all these results strongly suggest that SmVKR1 could be involved in meiosis resumption or ovulation through JNK activation, while SmVKR2 would have an earlier function in the growth and/or proliferation of oogonies. Finally, the last part of my project concerned the assessment of VKR as a chemotherapeutic target. Taking advantage of the similarity between the catalytic domains of S. mansoni insulin receptors (SmIR1 and SmIR2) and Venus Kinase Receptors (SmVKR1 and SmVKR2), we studied the possibility to fight schistosomes by targeting simultaneously the four receptors with a single drug. We analyzed the potential of several IR and RTK inhibitors to inhibit kinase activities of both SmIR and SmVKR kinase domains recombinantly expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Among the different compounds tested, tyrphostin AG1024 emerged as the most potent inhibitor towards the four receptors. In vitro experiments then demonstrated that treatment with AG1024 led to dramatic effects on the viability of larval and adult schistosomes as well as on the fertility of adult worms. We assume that AG1024 represents a valuable hit compound for further design of anti-kinase drugs applicable to anti-schistosome chemotherapy.Les récepteurs Venus Kinase ou VKR forment un nouvelle famille de récepteurs tyrosine kinase découverts au laboratoire. Ces récepteurs sont caractérisés par une organisation atypique associant un domaine extracellulaire de type Venus Flytrap (VFT) similaire à ceux des récepteurs couples aux protéines G de classe C à un domaine Tyrosine Kinase (TK) intracellulaire similaire à celui du récepteur à l’insuline (IR). Cette famille est présente uniquement chez les invertébrés dont notre modèle d’étude, le parasite plathelminthe Schistosoma mansoni. Les travaux réalisées à ce jour suggèrent que ces protéines jouent un rôle dans le développement des stades larvaires et la reproduction sexuée. Mon travail de thèse s’est intéressé à l’étude de cette famille de récepteurs et comporte trois axes principaux. Le premier concerne la mise à jour phylogénétique de la famille des VKR. Une analyse approfondie des données génomiques récentes nous a permis d’étendre la présence des VKR à près de 50 espèces dans cinq phyla invertébrés. La présence d’un VKR chez le cnidaire Nematostella vectensis suggère une émergence du récepteur avant l’apparition des bilatéraliens. Des analyses phylogénétiques ont mis en évidence la monophylie de l’ensemble des récepteurs ainsi que des importants niveaux de conservation des motifs fonctionnels VFT et TK. Des analyses de modélisation du domaine de fixation au ligand suggèrent que la majorité de ces récepteurs puissent être activables par des acides aminés de type L-Arginine. La découverte de VKR chez Nematostella vectensis, Lottia gigantea ou Capitella teleta s’avère prometteuse dans la mesure où ces modèles se prêtent parfaitement à l’embryologie moléculaire, et pourraient être utilisés pour étudier la fonction des VKR dans l’embryogenèse.La deuxième partie de mon travail s’est intéressée à la caractérisation fonctionnelle de SmVKR1 et SmVKR2, les deux VKR de Schistosoma mansoni. En utilisant le modèle d’expression ovocyte de Xénope, nous avons pu dans un premier temps déterminer que SmVKR1 et SmVKR2 sont activables par plusieurs et différents L-acides aminés. L’identification de partenaires intracellulaires par un criblage en double hybride de levure nous a permis de déterminer de nouveaux et inattendus partenaires d’interaction, suggérant des fonctions dans l’activation de voies TK conservées, mais également dans le remodelage du cytosquelette ou la synthèse protéique. Si les deux récepteurs activent les voies Akt, S6K et Erk1/2, seul SmVKR1 est capable d’activer la voie JNK. Les profils d’expression ont été déterminés par hybridation in situ et, si les deux gènes s’expriment dans l’ovaire, la localisation des transcrits est clairement distincte avec une expression de SmVKR2 au sein des ovocytes immatures et de SmVKR1 dans les ovocytes matures. Enfin des expériences d’ARN interférence sont venues confirmer un rôle de ces récepteurs au sein de l’ovogenèse, la diminution d’expression entraînant des phénotypes délétères sur la croissance et ovocytes et la ponte des oeufs. L’étude des voies de signalisation SmVKR1 a été également été entreprise au laboratoire, mettant en évidence l’importance de la protéine adaptatrice SmShb dans l’induction de la voie JNK par SmVKR1. L’ensemble de des résultats suggère que SmVKR1 aurait une fonction dans la migration des ovocytes et/ou dans la reprise de méiose par l’activation de la voie JNK, tandis que SmVKR2 aurait un rôle plus précoce, dans la croissance et/ou la prolifération des ovogonies. Enfin la dernière partie de mon travail de these visait à determiner si les VKR peuvent être considérés comme des cibles thérapeutiques intéressantes en vue du développement de nouvelles drogues anti parasitaires. [...

Structure, function and evolution of Venus Kinase Receptors - : roles in the reproduction of the parasite Schistosoma mansoni

Les récepteurs Venus Kinase ou VKR forment un nouvelle famille de récepteurs tyrosine kinase découverts au laboratoire. Ces récepteurs sont caractérisés par une organisation atypique associant un domaine extracellulaire de type Venus Flytrap (VFT) similaire à ceux des récepteurs couples aux protéines G de classe C à un domaine Tyrosine Kinase (TK) intracellulaire similaire à celui du récepteur à l’insuline (IR). Cette famille est présente uniquement chez les invertébrés dont notre modèle d’étude, le parasite plathelminthe Schistosoma mansoni. Les travaux réalisées à ce jour suggèrent que ces protéines jouent un rôle dans le développement des stades larvaires et la reproduction sexuée. Mon travail de thèse s’est intéressé à l’étude de cette famille de récepteurs et comporte trois axes principaux. Le premier concerne la mise à jour phylogénétique de la famille des VKR. Une analyse approfondie des données génomiques récentes nous a permis d’étendre la présence des VKR à près de 50 espèces dans cinq phyla invertébrés. La présence d’un VKR chez le cnidaire Nematostella vectensis suggère une émergence du récepteur avant l’apparition des bilatéraliens. Des analyses phylogénétiques ont mis en évidence la monophylie de l’ensemble des récepteurs ainsi que des importants niveaux de conservation des motifs fonctionnels VFT et TK. Des analyses de modélisation du domaine de fixation au ligand suggèrent que la majorité de ces récepteurs puissent être activables par des acides aminés de type L-Arginine. La découverte de VKR chez Nematostella vectensis, Lottia gigantea ou Capitella teleta s’avère prometteuse dans la mesure où ces modèles se prêtent parfaitement à l’embryologie moléculaire, et pourraient être utilisés pour étudier la fonction des VKR dans l’embryogenèse.La deuxième partie de mon travail s’est intéressée à la caractérisation fonctionnelle de SmVKR1 et SmVKR2, les deux VKR de Schistosoma mansoni. En utilisant le modèle d’expression ovocyte de Xénope, nous avons pu dans un premier temps déterminer que SmVKR1 et SmVKR2 sont activables par plusieurs et différents L-acides aminés. L’identification de partenaires intracellulaires par un criblage en double hybride de levure nous a permis de déterminer de nouveaux et inattendus partenaires d’interaction, suggérant des fonctions dans l’activation de voies TK conservées, mais également dans le remodelage du cytosquelette ou la synthèse protéique. Si les deux récepteurs activent les voies Akt, S6K et Erk1/2, seul SmVKR1 est capable d’activer la voie JNK. Les profils d’expression ont été déterminés par hybridation in situ et, si les deux gènes s’expriment dans l’ovaire, la localisation des transcrits est clairement distincte avec une expression de SmVKR2 au sein des ovocytes immatures et de SmVKR1 dans les ovocytes matures. Enfin des expériences d’ARN interférence sont venues confirmer un rôle de ces récepteurs au sein de l’ovogenèse, la diminution d’expression entraînant des phénotypes délétères sur la croissance et ovocytes et la ponte des oeufs. L’étude des voies de signalisation SmVKR1 a été également été entreprise au laboratoire, mettant en évidence l’importance de la protéine adaptatrice SmShb dans l’induction de la voie JNK par SmVKR1. L’ensemble de des résultats suggère que SmVKR1 aurait une fonction dans la migration des ovocytes et/ou dans la reprise de méiose par l’activation de la voie JNK, tandis que SmVKR2 aurait un rôle plus précoce, dans la croissance et/ou la prolifération des ovogonies. Enfin la dernière partie de mon travail de these visait à determiner si les VKR peuvent être considérés comme des cibles thérapeutiques intéressantes en vue du développement de nouvelles drogues anti parasitaires. [...]Venus Kinase Receptors (VKR) represent a new family of receptor tyrosine kinases discovered in the lab. These receptors are characterized by an atypical structure composed of an extracellular ligand binding domain called Venus Flytrap, similar to those of class C G- protein coupled receptors, and an intracellular Tyrosine Kinase domain, very close to those of Insulin Receptors. These proteins are exclusively found in invertebrate organisms including our lab model, the parasitic platyhelminth Schistosoma mansoni. Current data strongly suggest a function for these receptors in larval development and reproduction. My thesis project concerns the study of this receptor family and is divided into three parts:The first part consists in an update of the VKR family phylogeny. Analyses of recent genomic data have allowed us to extend the presence of VKR to 50 species present in five bilaterian phyla. The presence of one VKR in the early-branching metazoan Nematostella vectensis suggested that VKR arose before the bilaterian radiation. Phylogenetic and gene structure analyses showed that all receptors identified grouped monophyletically, and likely evolved from a common ancestor. Multiple alignments of tyrosine kinase (TK) and VFT domains indicated their important level of conservation in all VKRs identified up to date. We showed that VKRs had inducible activity upon binding of extracellular amino-acids and molecular modeling of the VFT domain confirmed the structure of the conserved amino-acid binding site.The second part of my thesis project concerns the functional characterization of SmVKR1 and SmVKR2, which are two VKRs of Schistosoma mansoni. Using the Xenopus oocyte model as a protein expression system, we have been able to determine that SmVKR1 and SmVKR2 are activated by distinct and different ligands. The identification of intracellular binding partners using yeast two hybrid experiments allowed us to determine unexpected interacting proteins, suggesting functions for SmVKRs in kinase signaling and cytoskeleton remodeling. If both receptors are able to activate Akt, S6K and Erk 1/2 pathways, only SmVKR1 triggers the activation of Jnk proteins. Expression patterns were determined by in situ hybridization and highlighted the presence of both SmVKR1 and smVKR2 transcripts in the ovary. However, their localization within the ovary is different, with SmVKR1 transcripts detected exclusively in the anterior part of the ovary while SmVKR2 transcripts were found in the posterior part that only contains immature oocytes. RNA interference experiments further confirmed the importance of SmVKR proteins in oogenesis, since the knockdown of every gene led to the appearance of deleterious phenotypes in the ovary. Taken together, all these results strongly suggest that SmVKR1 could be involved in meiosis resumption or ovulation through JNK activation, while SmVKR2 would have an earlier function in the growth and/or proliferation of oogonies. Finally, the last part of my project concerned the assessment of VKR as a chemotherapeutic target. Taking advantage of the similarity between the catalytic domains of S. mansoni insulin receptors (SmIR1 and SmIR2) and Venus Kinase Receptors (SmVKR1 and SmVKR2), we studied the possibility to fight schistosomes by targeting simultaneously the four receptors with a single drug. We analyzed the potential of several IR and RTK inhibitors to inhibit kinase activities of both SmIR and SmVKR kinase domains recombinantly expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Among the different compounds tested, tyrphostin AG1024 emerged as the most potent inhibitor towards the four receptors. In vitro experiments then demonstrated that treatment with AG1024 led to dramatic effects on the viability of larval and adult schistosomes as well as on the fertility of adult worms. We assume that AG1024 represents a valuable hit compound for further design of anti-kinase drugs applicable to anti-schistosome chemotherapy

Targeting Echinococcus multilocularis Stem Cells by Inhibition of the Polo-Like Kinase EmPlk1

Background Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a life-threatening disease caused by larvae of the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Crucial to AE pathology is continuous infiltrative growth of the parasite's metacestode stage, which is driven by a population of somatic stem cells, called germinative cells. Current anti-AE chemotherapy using benzimidazoles is ineffective in eliminating the germinative cell population, thus leading to remission of parasite growth upon therapy discontinuation. Methodology/Principal findings We herein describe the characterization of EmPlk1, encoded by the gene emplk1, which displays significant homologies to members of the Plk1 sub-family of Polo-like kinases that regulate mitosis in eukaryotic cells. We demonstrate germinative cell-specific expression of emplk1 by RT-PCR, transcriptomics, and in situ hybridization. We also show that EmPlk1 can induce germinal vesicle breakdown when heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes, indicating that it is an active kinase. This activity was significantly suppressed in presence of BI 2536, a Plk1 inhibitor that has been tested in clinical trials against cancer. Addition of BI 2536 at concentrations as low as 20 nM significantly blocked the formation of metacestode vesicles from cultivated Echinococcus germinative cells. Furthermore, low concentrations of BI 2536 eliminated the germinative cell population from mature metacestode vesicles in vitro, yielding parasite tissue that was no longer capable of proliferation. Conclusions/Significance We conclude that BI 2536 effectively inactivates E. multilocularis germinative cells in parasite larvae in vitro by direct inhibition of EmPlk1, thus inducing mitotic arrest and germinative cell killing. Since germinative cells are decisive for parasite proliferation and metastasis formation within the host, BI 2536 and related compounds are very promising compounds to complement benzimidazoles in AE chemotherapy. Author Summary The lethal disease AE is characterized by continuous and infiltrative growth of the metacestode larva of the tapeworm E. multilocularis within host organs. This cancer-like progression is exclusively driven by a population of parasite stem cells (germinative cells) that have to be eliminated for an effective cure of the disease. Current treatment options, using benzimidazoles, are parasitostatic only, and thus obviously not effective in germinative cell killing. We herein describe a novel, druggable parasite enzyme, EmPlk1, that specifically regulates germinative cell proliferation. We show that a compound, BI 2536, originally designed to inhibit the human ortholog of EmPlk1, can also inhibit the parasite protein at low doses. Furthermore, low doses of BI 2536 eliminated germinative cells from Echinococcus larvae in vitro and prevented parasite growth and development. We propose that BI 2536 and related compounds are promising drugs to complement current benzimidazole treatment for achieving parasite killing

Compound library screening identified Akt/PKB kinase pathway inhibitors as potential key molecules for the development of new chemotherapeutics against schistosomiasis

Protein kinases (PKs) are one of the largest protein families in most eukaryotic organisms. These enzymes are involved in the control of cell proliferation, differentiation and metabolism and a large number of the anticancer drugs currently used are directed against PKs. The structure and function of PKs are well conserved throughout evolution. In schistosome parasites, PKs were shown to be involved in essential functions at every stage of the parasite life cycle, making these enzymes promising anti-parasite drug targets. In this study, we tested a panel of commercial inhibitors for various PKs and analyzed their effects on pairing and egg production by schistosomes as well as their toxicity towards schistosomula larvae. Results obtained confirmed the deleterious effect of PK targeting on Schistosoma mansoni physiology and the important function of different tyrosine and serine/threonine kinases in the biology and reproduction of this parasite. They also indicated for the first time that the Protein kinase B (also called Akt) which is a major downstream target of many receptor tyrosine kinases and a central player at the crossroads of signal transduction pathways activated in response to growth factors and insulin, can constitute a novel target for anti-schistosome chemotherapy. Structural and functional studies have shown that SmAkt is a conserved kinase and that its activity can be inhibited by commercially available Akt inhibitors. In treated adult worms, Akt/PKB kinase pathway inhibitors induced profound alterations in pairing and egg laying and they also greatly affected the viability of schistosomula larvae

The venus kinase receptor (VKR) family: structure and evolution.

International audienceBACKGROUND: Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) form a family of transmembrane proteins widely conserved in Metazoa, with key functions in cell-to-cell communication and control of multiple cellular processes. A new family of RTK named Venus Kinase Receptor (VKR) has been described in invertebrates. The VKR receptor possesses a Venus Fly Trap (VFT) extracellular module, a bilobate structure that binds small ligands to induce receptor kinase activity. VKR was shown to be highly expressed in the larval stages and gonads of several invertebrates, suggesting that it could have functions in development and/or reproduction. RESULTS: Analysis of recent genomic data has allowed us to extend the presence of VKR to five bilaterian phyla (Platyhelminthes, Arthropoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Echinodermata) as well as to the Cnidaria phylum. The presence of NveVKR in the early-branching metazoan Nematostella vectensis suggested that VKR arose before the bilaterian radiation. Phylogenetic and gene structure analyses showed that the 40 receptors identified in 36 animal species grouped monophyletically, and likely evolved from a common ancestor. Multiple alignments of tyrosine kinase (TK) and VFT domains indicated their important level of conservation in all VKRs identified up to date. We showed that VKRs had inducible activity upon binding of extracellular amino-acids and molecular modeling of the VFT domain confirmed the structure of the conserved amino-acid binding site. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the presence of VKR in a large number of invertebrates, including primitive metazoans like cnidarians, but also its absence from nematodes and chordates. This little-known RTK family deserves to be further explored in order to determine its evolutionary origin, its possible interest for the emergence and specialization of Metazoa, and to understand its function in invertebrate development and/or reproductive biology

SmShb, the SH2-Containing Adaptor Protein B of Schistosoma mansoni Regulates Venus Kinase Receptor Signaling Pathways.

Venus kinase receptors (VKRs) are invertebrate receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) formed by an extracellular Venus Fly Trap (VFT) ligand binding domain associated via a transmembrane domain with an intracellular tyrosine kinase (TK) domain. Schistosoma mansoni VKRs, SmVKR1 and SmVKR2, are both implicated in reproductive activities of the parasite. In this work, we show that the SH2 domain-containing protein SmShb is a partner of the phosphorylated form of SmVKR1. Expression of these proteins in Xenopus oocytes allowed us to demonstrate that the SH2 domain of SmShb interacts with the phosphotyrosine residue (pY979) located in the juxtamembrane region of SmVKR1. This interaction leads to phosphorylation of SmShb on tyrosines and promotes SmVKR1 signaling towards the JNK pathway. SmShb transcripts are expressed in all parasite stages and they were found in ovary and testes of adult worms, suggesting a possible colocalization of SmShb and SmVKR1 proteins. Silencing of SmShb in adult S. mansoni resulted in an accumulation of mature sperm in testes, indicating a possible role of SmShb in gametogenesis

Dual Targeting of Insulin and Venus Kinase Receptors of Schistosoma mansoni for Novel Anti-schistosome Therapy

Background: Chemotherapy of schistosomiasis relies on a single drug, Praziquantel (PZQ) and mass-use of this compoundhas led to emergence of resistant strains ofSchistosoma mansoni, therefore pointing out the necessity to find alternativedrugs. Through their essential functions in development and metabolism, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) could representvaluable drug targets for novel anti-schistosome chemotherapies. Taking advantage of the similarity between the catalyticdomains ofS. mansoniinsulin receptors (SmIR1 and SmIR2) and Venus Kinase Receptors (SmVKR1 and SmVKR2), we studiedthe possibility to fight schistosomes by targeting simultaneously the four receptors with a single drug.Methodology/Principal Findings: Several commercial RTK inhibitors were tested for their potential to inhibit the kinaseactivities of SmIR1, SmIR2, SmVKR1 and SmVKR2 intracellular domains (ICD) expressed inXenopusoocytes. We measured theinhibitory effect of chemicals on meiosis resumption induced by the active ICD of the schistosome kinases in oocytes. The IRinhibitor, tyrphostin AG1024, was the most potent inhibitory compound towards SmIR and SmVKR kinases.In vitrostudiesthen allowed us to show that AG1024 affected the viability of both schistosomula and adult worms ofS. mansoni.Atmicromolar doses, AG1024 induced apoptosis and caused schistosomula death in a dose-dependent manner. In adultworms, AG1024 provoked alterations of reproductive organs, as observed by confocal laser scanner microscopy. With 5mMAG1024, parasites were no more feeding and laying eggs, and they died within 48 h with 10mM.Conclusion/Significance: IRs and VKRs are essential inS. mansonifor key biological processes including glucose uptake,metabolism and reproduction. Our results demonstrate that inhibiting the kinase potential and function of these receptorsby a single chemical compound AG1024 at low concentrations, leads to death of schistosomula and adult worms. Thus,AG1024 represents a valuable hit compound for further design of anti-kinase drugs applicable to anti-schistosomechemotherapy

WISH detection of <i>emplk1</i> transcripts.

<p>(A) General view of a metacestode hybridized with the <i>emplk1</i> antisense probe. Note the accumulation of <i>emplk1</i> positive cells in the developing protoscoleces (arrows). (B) General view of a metacestode hybridized with the <i>emplk1</i> sense control probe. No signal is detected. (C–F) Details of <i>emplk1</i> WISH detection in different developmental stages. (C) Detail of the metacestode germinative layer, in which dispersed <i>emplk1</i> positive cells can be distinguished (inset: higher magnification of a positive cell, combined with 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) nuclear staining). (D) Accumulation of <i>emplk1</i> positive cells in the early brood capsule bud (arrow). (E) Early protoscolex development, with abundant <i>emplk1</i> positive cells in the interior. (F) Late protoscolex development. <i>emplk1</i> positive cells accumulate at the base of the developing suckers (arrows). Bars represent 200 µm (A, B) and 50 µm (C–F).</p

Expression of <i>emplk1</i> in <i>E. multilocularis</i> larval stages.

<p>Total RNA was isolated from primary cell cultures (Pc) after 2, 5 and 11 days (d2, d5, d11) of development towards the metacestode stage, from dormant (Ps_non) and pepsin/low pH-activated protoscoleces (Ps_act), as well as from mature metacestode vesicles (Mc). The isolated RNA was reverse transcribed to cDNA and equal amounts of serial (10-fold) dilutions of cDNA were subjected to gene-specific RT-PCR for <i>emplk1</i> and the constitutively expressed gene <i>elp</i> (control) as indicated to the right. PCR products were separated on a 1.5% agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide. gDNA indicates positive control lanes where PCR has been performed on genomic DNA. ‘RT-neg’ indicates the negative control where reverse transcriptase has been omitted. Marker sizes are indicated to the left.</p

Analysis of EmPlk1 activity in <i>Xenopus</i> oocytes.

<p>Wild-type (wt) and mutant forms (T₁₇₉D, constitutively active; T₁₇₉V, non-activatable; wt^KD, T₁₇₉D^KD, kinase dead mutants) of EmPlk1 were expressed in <i>Xenopus</i> oocytes (20 oocytes per set) and germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) assays were carried out in the presence of different concentrations of BI 2536 as indicated to the left. Treatment by the natural inducer, progesterone (PG), served as a positive control. Displayed are the percentages of <i>Xenopus</i> oocytes that underwent GVBD in the different experimental settings (mean of three independent experiments). ‘-’ indicates that this condition has not been tested.</p