871 research outputs found

    Computer simulations of ionic liquids at electrochemical interfaces

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    Ionic liquids are widely used as electrolytes in electrochemical devices. In this context, many experimental and theoretical approaches have been recently developed for characterizing their interface with electrodes. In this perspective article, we review the most recent advances in the field of computer simulations (mainly molecular dynamics). A methodology for simulating electrodes at constant electrical potential is presented. Several types of electrode geometries have been investigated by many groups in order to model planar, corrugated and porous materials and we summarize the results obtained in terms of the structure of the liquids. This structure governs the quantity of charge which can be stored at the surface of the electrode for a given applied potential, which is the relevant quantity for the highly topical use of ionic liquids in supercapacitors (also known as electrochemical double-layer capacitors). A key feature, which was also shown by atomic force microscopy and surface force apparatus experiments, is the formation of a layered structure for all ionic liquids at the surface of planar electrodes. This organization cannot take place inside nanoporous electrodes, which results in a much better performance for the latter in supercapacitors. The agreement between simulations and electrochemical experiments remains qualitative only though, and we outline future directions which should enhance the predictive power of computer simulations. In the longer term, atomistic simulations will also be applied to the case of electron transfer reactions at the interface, enabling the application to a broader area of problems in electrochemistry, and the few recent works in this field are also commented upon.Comment: 12 pages, 10 figures, perspective articl

    La hausse des taux longs est-elle inévitable ?

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    Depuis 2007, la crise, les plans de relance et le sauvetage du secteur financier ont entraĂźnĂ© un gonflement considĂ©rable des dettes publiques dans la plupart des pays industrialisĂ©s et par consĂ©quent une hausse de l’offre de titres publics. Si la demande de titres n’augmentait pas Ă  proportion de l’offre, les taux d’intĂ©rĂȘt Ă  long terme remonteraient inĂ©vitablement. Or, dans un contexte de finances publiques dĂ©gradĂ©es, la capacitĂ© des États Ă  se financer Ă  moindre coĂ»t, et donc la persistance de taux d’intĂ©rĂȘt bas Ă  long terme revĂȘt une importance toute particuliĂšre. Dans cet article, nous nous proposons d’étudier un certain nombre de facteurs susceptibles d’avoir une influence sur ces taux longs. AprĂšs avoir montrĂ© que les facteurs explicatifs traditionnels des taux longs ne suffisent pas Ă  expliquer la baisse rĂ©cente des taux, nous identifions quels sont les principaux acteurs sur le marchĂ© des titres publics. Nous tentons ensuite de comprendre les ressorts de la demande de titres, en particulier de la part des investisseurs institutionnels, principaux acquĂ©reurs de titres publics : l’Europe nous apparaĂźt comme un exemple privilĂ©giĂ©, dans la mesure oĂč les rĂ©formes des normes comptables SolvabilitĂ© 2 et IAS-IFRS sont susceptibles d’avoir un impact non nĂ©gligeable sur les stratĂ©gies d’investissement des « zinzins »

    hausse des taux longs est-elle inévitable ?.

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    Depuis 2007, la crise, les plans de relance et le sauvetage du secteur financier ont entraĂźnĂ© un gonflement considĂ©rable des dettes publiques dans la plupart des pays industrialisĂ©s et par consĂ©quent une hausse de l’offre de titres publics. Si la demande de titres n’augmentait pas Ă  proportion de l’offre, les taux d’intĂ©rĂȘt Ă  long terme remonteraient inĂ©vitablement. Or, dans un contexte de finances publiques dĂ©gradĂ©es, la capacitĂ© des États Ă  se financer Ă  moindre coĂ»t, et donc la persistance de taux d’intĂ©rĂȘt bas Ă  long terme revĂȘt une importance toute particuliĂšre. Dans cet article, nous nous proposons d’étudier un certain nombre de facteurs susceptibles d’avoir une influence sur ces taux longs. AprĂšs avoir montrĂ© que les facteurs explicatifs traditionnels des taux longs ne suffisent pas Ă  expliquer la baisse rĂ©cente des taux, nous identifions quels sont les principaux acteurs sur le marchĂ© des titres publics. Nous tentons ensuite de comprendre les ressorts de la demande de titres, en particulier de la part des investisseurs institutionnels, principaux acquĂ©reurs de titres publics : l’Europe nous apparaĂźt comme un exemple privilĂ©giĂ©, dans la mesure oĂč les rĂ©formes des normes comptables SolvabilitĂ© 2 et IAS-IFRS sont susceptibles d’avoir un impact non nĂ©gligeable sur les stratĂ©gies d’investissement des « zinzins ».

    Blur aware metric depth estimation with multi-focus plenoptic cameras

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    While a traditional camera only captures one point of view of a scene, a plenoptic or light-field camera, is able to capture spatial and angular information in a single snapshot, enabling depth estimation from a single acquisition. In this paper, we present a new metric depth estimation algorithm using only raw images from a multi-focus plenoptic camera. The proposed approach is especially suited for the multi-focus configuration where several micro-lenses with different focal lengths are used. The main goal of our blur aware depth estimation (BLADE) approach is to improve disparity estimation for defocus stereo images by integrating both correspondence and defocus cues. We thus leverage blur information where it was previously considered a drawback. We explicitly derive an inverse projection model including the defocus blur providing depth estimates up to a scale factor. A method to calibrate the inverse model is then proposed. We thus take into account depth scaling to achieve precise and accurate metric depth estimates. Our results show that introducing defocus cues improves the depth estimation. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our framework and depth scaling calibration on relative depth estimation setups and on real-world 3D complex scenes with ground truth acquired with a 3D lidar scanner.Comment: 21 pages, 12 Figures, 3 Table

    Charge fluctuations in nano-scale capacitors

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    The fluctuations of the charge on an electrode contain information on the microscopic correlations within the adjacent fluid and their effect on the electronic properties of the interface. We investigate these fluctuations using molecular dynamics simulations in a constant-potential ensemble with histogram reweighting techniques. This approach offers in particular an efficient, accurate and physically insightful route to the differential capacitance that is broadly applicable. We demonstrate these methods with three different capacitors: pure water between platinum electrodes, and a pure as well as a solvent-based organic electrolyte each between graphite electrodes. The total charge distributions with the pure solvent and solvent-based electrolytes are remarkably Gaussian, while in the pure ionic liquid the total charge distribution displays distinct non-Gaussian features, suggesting significant potential-driven changes in the organization of the interfacial fluid

    Cyclic-AMP signalling in Sinorhizobium meliloti and its role in the control of infection during symbiosis with Medicago

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    La lĂ©gumineuse Medicago sativa Ă©tablit une symbiose fixatrice d'azote avec la bactĂ©rie Sinorhizobium meliloti impliquant la formation d'un organe spĂ©cialisĂ©, le nodule, au niveau de la racine de la plante hĂŽte. La formation de nodules fait intervenir un programme complexe de dĂ©veloppement impliquant le processus d'organogenĂšse du nodule, l'infection intracellulaire des cellules de ce dernier, ainsi que des mĂ©canismes de diffĂ©renciation croisĂ©e des deux partenaires. Afin que la symbiose garde son caractĂšre mutualiste, il est nĂ©cessaire qu'elle soit rĂ©gulĂ©e nĂ©gativement. Ainsi la nodulation est contrĂŽlĂ©e de maniĂšre nĂ©gative par Medicago via en particulier une boucle de rĂ©gulation appelĂ©e AON. Pour Ă©viter une surinfection racinaire, l'infection est Ă©galement contrĂŽlĂ©e de maniĂšre nĂ©gative. Jusqu'Ă  maintenant, on pensait que seule la plante jouait un rĂŽle dans le contrĂŽle nĂ©gatif de l'infection. Dans le cadre de ma thĂšse, nous avons mis en Ă©vidence que la bactĂ©rie S. meliloti intervenait Ă©galement dans ce processus. En effet, nous avons montrĂ© que trois adĂ©nylate cyclases (ACs)bactĂ©riennes de type rĂ©cepteur, CyaD1, CyaD2, et CyaK, participent au contrĂŽle du processus infectieux en rĂ©ponse Ă  un signal de nature inconnue. En rĂ©ponse Ă  ce signal, les trois ACs synthĂ©tisent de l'AMPc qui, via le rĂ©gulateur Clr (CRP-like regulator), active un gĂšne cible, le gĂšne smc02178 dont le rĂŽle est encore inconnu. La mutation des composants de la cascade conduit Ă  un phĂ©notype hyper-infectieux sur les racines de M. sativa. Mes travaux de thĂšse ont portĂ© sur la caractĂ©risation du signal perçu par les cyclases, sa biosynthĂšse et l'Ă©tude de son mode de perception par CyaK. Nous avons montrĂ© que le signal perçu par les trois cyclases est de nature vĂ©gĂ©tale. Ce signal est prĂ©sent dans les parties aĂ©riennes et dans les nodules de M. sativa, ainsi que chez un grand nombre d'espĂšces vĂ©gĂ©tales y compris non lĂ©gumineuses. Dans un deuxiĂšme temps, nous nous sommes intĂ©ressĂ©s Ă  une phosphodiesterase (PDE), la proteine SpdA (SMc02179), susceptible d'ĂȘtre impliquĂ© dans la rĂ©gulation du taux d'AMPc prĂ©sent dans la bactĂ©rie. L'Ă©tude de la rĂ©gulation du gĂšne smc02179 codant la PDE a montrĂ© que le gĂšne smc02179 est exprimĂ© en symbiose dĂšs le stade prĂ©coce de l'infection. Nous avons Ă©galement caractĂ©risĂ© de maniĂšre fonctionnelle la protĂ©ine SpdA in vivo et in vitro et Ă©tudiĂ© son rĂŽle dans la cascade de signalisation.The leguminous plant Medicago sativa (Alfalfa) can enter a symbiosis with a nitrogen-fixing bacterium called Sinorhizobium meliloti. S. meliloti elicits on M. sativa roots the formation of specialized organs called nodules that behave as miniature nitrogen-fixing factories in which fixed nitrogen is provided to the plant, in proportion of its needs. Extensive work on the model Medicago truncatula/S. meliloti has revealed a great deal of the genetic pathway involved in Nod Factor (NF) perception and signal transduction pathway leading to coordinated nodule organogenesis and controlled bacterial infection. The negative control of nodulation and infection is nowadays a very active area of research. Such a negative control is physiologically essential as excessive nodulation and/or bacterial infection would be detrimental to the symbiosis and to plant health. So far only plant (Medicago and Lotus) mutants have been identified that are affected for the control of infection. As part of my PhD thesis, we have shown that the bacterium S. meliloti is also involved in this process. Indeed, we have shown that three receptor-type bacterial adenylate cyclases (ACs) CyaD1, CyaD2 and CyaK, participate in the control of the infectious process in response to an unknown signal. In response to this signal, the three ACs synthesize cAMP which, via the regulator Clr (CRP -like regulator), activates a target gene, the gene smc02178 whose role is still unknown. The mutation of cascade components leads to a hyper-infectious phenotype on M. sativa roots. My PhD work focused on the characterization of signal perception mechanisms by the cyclases, its biosynthesis and the study of its perception by CyaK. We have shown that the signal perceived by the three cyclases is a plant signal. This signal is present in shoots and in nodules of M. sativa, and in a large number of plant species including non-legumes. In a second step, we were interested in a phosphodiesterase (PDE), the protein SpdA (SMc02179), potentially involved in the regulation of cAMP levels in S. meliloti. The study of the smc02179 regulation showed that the gene is expressed in symbiosis from the early stage of infection. We have thus functionally characterized the SpdA protein in vivo and in vitro and studied its role in the signalling cascade
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