Similar psychological distance reduces temporal discounting.

People often prefer inferior options in the present even when options in the future are more lucrative. Five studies investigated whether decision making could be improved by manipulating construal level and psychological distance. In Studies 1a, 1b, and 2, temporal discounting was reduced when future rewards (trips to Paris) were construed at a relatively concrete level, thus inducing a similar level of construal to present rewards. By contrast, Studies 3 and 4 reduced temporal discounting by making present financial rewards more psychologically distant via a social proximity manipulation, and thus linked to a similar high level of construal as future rewards. These results suggest that people prefer the more lucrative option when comparing two intertemporal choices that are construed on a similar level instead of on a different level. Thus, changes in construal level and mental representations can be used to promote more desirable choices in economic decision making.Kim, H., Schnall, S., & White, M. P. (2013). Similar psychological distance reduces temporal discounting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1005-1016

The goldilocks placebo effect:Placebo effects are stronger when people select a treatment from an optimal number of choices

People are often more satisfied with a choice (e.g., chocolates, pens) when the number of options in the choice set is "just right" (e.g., 10-12), neither too few (e.g., 2-4) nor too many (e.g., 30-40). We investigated this "Goldilocks effect" in the context of a placebo treatment. Participants reporting nonspecific complaints (e.g., headaches) chose one of Bach's 38 Flower Essences from a choice set of 2 (low choice), 12 (optimal choice), or 38 (full choice) options to use for a 2-week period. Replicating earlier findings in the novel context of a health-related choice, participants were initially more satisfied with the essence they selected when presented with 12 versus either 2 or 38 options. More importantly, self-reported symptoms were significantly lower 2 weeks later in the optimal (12) versus nonoptimal choice conditions (2 and 38). Because there is no known active ingredient in Bach's Flower Essences, we refer to this as the Goldilocks placebo effect. Supporting a counterfactual thinking account of the Goldilocks effect, and despite significantly fewer symptoms after 2 weeks, those in the optimal choice set condition were no longer significantly more satisfied with their choice at the end of testing. Implications for medical practice, especially patient choice, are discussed.</p

The excess choice effect:The role of outcome valence and counterfactual thinking

Contrary to economic theory, psychological research has demonstrated increased choice can undermine satisfaction. When and why this 'excess choice effect' (ECE) occurs remains unclear. Building on theories of counterfactual thinking we argue the ECE is more likely to occur when people experience counterfactual thought or emotion and that a key trigger is a negative versus positive task outcome. Participants either selected a drink (Experiment 1) or chocolate (Experiment 2) from a limited (6) versus extensive (24) selection (Experiment 1) or were given no choice versus extensive (24) choice (Experiment 2). In both experiments, however, the choice was illusory: Half the participants tasted a 'good' flavour, half a 'bad' flavour. As predicted, extensive choice was only detrimental to satisfaction when participants tasted the 'bad' drink or chocolate, and this was mediated by the experience of counterfactual thought (Experiment 1) or emotion (Experiment 2). When outcomes were positive, participants were similarly satisfied with limited versus extensive and no choice versus extensive choice. Implications for our theoretical understanding of the ECE and for the construction of choice architectures aimed at promoting individual satisfaction and well-being are discussed.16 page(s

Exploring the role of normative, financial and environmental information in promoting uptake of energy efficient technologies

The potential of normative and feedback (financial vs. environmental) information in guiding pro-environmental decision-making behaviour was explored in a 2 × 2 (plus control) choice experiment. Using the context of home heating, 599 non-student participants from the UK general public were asked to choose between a standard heating system (a gas boiler) and a relatively more-energy efficient option (a heat pump). In line with evidence for the energy efficiency gap for sustainable innovations, there was low uptake of the heat pump (32.5%) in the control condition where no frame information was provided. Yet, in both conditions where normative information was provided, respondents were significantly more likely (vs. control) to choose the heat pump (financial + norm OR 3.63; 95% CIs 2.13,6.19; environmental + norm OR 3.09; 95% CIs 1.67,4.79), advancing understanding of normative social influence in the context of pro-environmental purchase behaviour. When normative information was not provided, only financial (OR 2.82; 95% CIs 1.67,4.79) but not environmental (OR 1.33; 95% CIs 0.78,2.26), feedback was associated with a significantly greater likelihood of heat pump choice. The main effect of normative information was replicated for behavioural intentions (though only for homeowners), but there was no norm-feedback interaction (regardless of homeownership). The implications for researchers looking to promote ‘green’ choice in the context of new technology adoption are discussed.</p

Theory-based design for promoting positive behaviours in an urban blue space: Pre-and-post observations of a community co-created intervention in Plymouth, United Kingdom

Behaviour observation and mapping are useful planning tools to generate evidence to create people-friendly public spaces. Small-scale interventions are gaining popularity as cost-effective and quick solutions to regenerate degraded urban outdoor environments. Onsite behaviour observation mapping with GIS underpins evidence gathering, analysis, and planning and design decision-making. Using the BlueHealth Behaviour Assessment Tool (BBAT) developed within the EU-funded Horizon 2020 Project “Blue Health”, we carried out pre- and post- intervention observations of visits, activities and visitors' characteristics in a site at Teats Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom. Pre-post comparison of visits and activities in three target areas the entire site before and the within-site intervention area (a small open-air theatre) and the rest of the site afterwards were examined to analyse the impact of the intervention on socialising and relaxing activities. Behaviour observation data was both spatially and statistically analysed. Key outcomes were sitting, standing, walking, activity with a dog, viewing, using a phone and socialising. Both a logistic regression model and spatial analysis using density maps and hot spot analysis confirmed an increased use of the open-air theatre and its positive impact on the use of the rest of the park (the non-intervention area). Our logit models showed that the intervention promoted positive behaviour for health (i.e. blue space activities, socialisation, and relaxing activities), greater inclusivity and diversity of visitors. We conclude that an evidence-based design approach can increase blue space accessibility, improve place affordances and promote positive behaviour and psychological well-being benefitting local communities

How do brochures encourage walking in natural environments in the UK? A content analysis.

Although walking for leisure can support health, there has been little systematic attempt to consider how recreational walking is best promoted. In the UK, local authorities create promotional materials for walking networks, but little is known about whether they effectively encourage walking through persuasive messaging. Many of these materials pertain to walks in natural environments which evidence suggests are generally visited less frequently by physically inactive individuals. Consequently the present study explores whether and how recreational walking brochures use persuasive messages in their promotion of walks in natural environments. A coding taxonomy was developed to classify text in recreational walking brochures according to five behavioural content areas and 87 categories of potentially persuasive messages. Reliability of the taxonomy was ascertained and a quantitative content analysis was applied to 26 brochures collected from Devon, UK. Brochures often provided information about an advertised route, highlighted cultural and aesthetic points of interest, and provided directions. Brochures did not use many potentially effective messages. Text seldom prompted behaviour change or built confidence for walking. Social norm related information was rarely provided and there was a general lack of information on physical activity and its benefits for health and well-being. The limited range of message strategies used in recreational walking brochures may not optimally facilitate walking in natural environments for inactive people. Future research should examine the effects of theory-informed brochures on walking intentions and behaviour. The taxonomy could be adapted to suit different media and practices surrounding physical activity in natural environments

General health and residential proximity to the coast in Belgium : results from a cross-sectional health survey

The health risks of coastal areas have long been researched, but the potential benefits for health are only recently being explored. The present study compared the general health of Belgian citizens a) according to the EU's definition of coastal ( 50 km), and b) between eight more refined categories of residential proximity to the coast ( 250 km). Data was drawn from the Belgian Health Interview Survey (n = 60,939) and investigated using linear regression models and mediation analyses on several hypothesized mechanisms. Results indicated that populations living 50-100 km. Four commonly hypothesized mechanisms were considered but no indirect associations were found: scores for mental health, physical activity levels and social contacts were not higher at 0-5 km from the coast, and air pollution (PM ic , concentrations) was lower at 0-5 km from the coast but not statistically associated with better health. Results are controlled for typical variables such as age, sex, income, neighbourhood levels of green and freshwater blue space, etc. The spatial urban-rural-nature mosaic at the Belgian coast and alternative explanations are discussed. The positive associations between the ocean and human health observed in this study encourage policy makers to manage coastal areas sustainably to maintain associated public health benefits into the future

Health benefits of physical activity related to an urban riverside regeneration

The promotion of physical activity through better urban design is one pathway by which health and well-being improvements can be achieved. This study aimed to quantify health and health-related economic impacts associated with physical activity in an urban riverside park regeneration project in Barcelona, Spain. We used data from Barcelona local authorities and meta-analysis assessing physical activity and health outcomes to develop and apply the “Blue Active Tool”. We estimated park user health impacts in terms of all-cause mortality, morbidity (ischemic heart disease; ischemic stroke; type 2 diabetes; cancers of the colon and breast; and dementia), disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and health-related economic impacts. We estimated that 5753 adult users visited the riverside park daily and performed different types of physical activity (walking for leisure or to/from work, cycling, and running). Related to the physical activity conducted on the riverside park, we estimated an annual reduction of 7.3 deaths (95% CI: 5.4; 10.2), and 6.2 cases of diseases (95% CI: 2.0; 11.6). This corresponds to 11.9 DALYs (95% CI: 3.4; 20.5) and an annual health-economic impact of 23.4 million euros (95% CI: 17.2 million; 32.8 million). The urban regeneration intervention of this riverside park provides health and health-related economic benefits to the population using the infrastructure

Social distance decreases responders’ sensitivity to fairness in the ultimatum game

Studies using the Ultimatum Game have shown that participants reject unfair offers extended by another person although this incurs a financial cost. Previous research suggests that one possible explanation for this apparently self-defeating response is that unfair offers involve strong negative responses that decrease the chances of responders accepting offers that would objectively constitute a net profit. We tested the hypothesis that one way of reducing responders’ rejections of unfair offers is through increased psychological distance, so that participants move away from the concrete feeling of being unfairly treated. Social distance was manipulated by having participants play the Ultimatum Game either for themselves, or for another person. Compared to deciding for one’s self or a close social contact, participants showed less sensitivity to fairness when deciding for a stranger, as indicated by fewer rejected unfair offers. We suggest that social distance helps people move beyond immediate fairness concerns in the Ultimatum Game