Impact des extraits organiques de particules diesel (DEPe) sur la physiologie de macrophages humains polarisés in vitro

Macrophages (MΦ), well-known to play a key role in immune response, also respond to environmental toxic chemicals such as diesel exhaust particles (DEP), an air pollutant recently classified as carcinogenic to humans. MΦ are heterogeneous and plastic cells which activate according to their microenvironment into either an M1 subtype (so called classically activated or pro-inflammatory) under IFNγ and LPS stimulation or an M2 subtype (so called alternatively activated or anti-inflammatory) under IL-4 and/or IL-13 stimulation. However, potential effects of DEPs on M1/M2 MΦ polarization remain poorly documented. First, we characterized the expression marker of in vitro M-CSF-differentiated MΦ from human monocytes and activated into the M1 or M2 subtypes. Our main results show that M-CSF-generated MΦ considered as anti-inflammatory are actually able to switch to an M1 phenotype after IFNγ/LPS stimulation. Furthermore, the markers identified in this study were used to assess the impact of organic extracts of DEP (DEPe) on MΦ polarization and more generally on their physiology. DEPe alter some M1 and M2 markers expressed by polarized MΦ, without causing the overall inhibition of the M1 and M2 polarization process or the switch to a different phenotype. This phenotype alteration is associated with a decrease in the LPS-dependent inflammatory response in M1 MΦ and the chemotactic capacities in M2 MΦ. DEPe decrease the secretion of some cytokines and chemokines such as IL-6, IL-12p40 and CCL18 via AhR and/or Nrf2 activation. At the same time, we show that M1 and M2 MΦ in response to DEPe are able to secrete a sufficient level of a pro-fibrotic growth factor, the platelet derived growth factor B (PDGF-B) via AhR activation, leading to stimulation of lung fibroblast proliferation. Finally, these works show that DEPe have immunotoxic properties with regards to the physiology of human in vitro polarized MΦ. This immunotoxicity may then contribute to the deleterious effects of these urban environmental contaminants on human health.Les macrophages (MΦ), des cellules clefs de la réponse immunitaire peuvent répondre à des contaminants environnementaux comme les particules diesel (DEP), des polluants atmosphériques récemment classés cancérigènes pour l'Homme. Les MΦ sont des cellules hétérogènes et plastiques qui s'activent en fonction de leur microenvironnement soit en MΦ M1 (dits classiquement activés ou pro-inflammatoires) sous l'effet de l'INFγ et du LPS soit en MΦ M2 (dits alternativement activés ou réparateurs) sous l'effet de l'IL-4 et/ou de l'IL-13. Les effets des DEP sur la polarisation M1/M2 des MΦ restent peu documentés. Nous avons dans un premier temps caractérisé l'expression des marqueurs des MΦ différenciés in vitro en présence de M-CSF à partir de monocytes humains et polarisés en sous-type M1 ou M2. Nos principaux résultats montrent que les MΦ différenciés au M-CSF considérés comme des MΦ anti-inflammatoires, sont en réalité capables de s'activer vers un phénotype M1 après une stimulation au LPS/IFNγ. De plus, les marqueurs mis en évidence au cours de ce travail ont permis d'évaluer l'impact d'extraits organiques de DEP (DEPe) sur la polarisation des MΦ et plus généralement sur leur physiologie. Les DEPe altèrent l'expression de certains marqueurs M1 et M2 des MΦ, sans toutefois provoquer d'inhibition globale des processus de polarisation M1 et M2 ou de transition d'un phénotype vers un autre. Cette altération du phénotype est associée à une diminution de la réponse inflammatoire LPS-dépendante dans les MΦ M1 et des capacités chimiotactiques des MΦ M2. Les DEPe diminuent la sécrétion de certaines cytokines et chimiokines comme l'IL-6, l'IL-12p40 et le CCL18 via l'activation d'AhR et/ou de Nrf2. Parallèlement, nous montrons que les MΦ M1 et M2 exposés aux DEPe sécrètent le platelet deried growth factor B (PDGF-B), un facteur de croissance profibrosant, via l'activation d'AhR en quantité suffisante pour stimuler la prolifération de fibroblastes pulmonaires. Au total, ces travaux démontrent que les DEP possèdent des propriétés immunotoxiques vis-à-vis de la physiologie des macrophages humains polarisés in vitro. Cette immunotoxicité pourrait participer aux effets délétères de ces contaminants environnementaux urbains sur la santé humaine

Impact of diesel exhaust particle extract (DEPe) on the physiology of in vitro polarized human macrophages

Les macrophages (MΦ), des cellules clefs de la réponse immunitaire peuvent répondre à des contaminants environnementaux comme les particules diesel (DEP), des polluants atmosphériques récemment classés cancérigènes pour l'Homme. Les MΦ sont des cellules hétérogènes et plastiques qui s'activent en fonction de leur microenvironnement soit en MΦ M1 (dits classiquement activés ou pro-inflammatoires) sous l'effet de l'INFγ et du LPS soit en MΦ M2 (dits alternativement activés ou réparateurs) sous l'effet de l'IL-4 et/ou de l'IL-13. Les effets des DEP sur la polarisation M1/M2 des MΦ restent peu documentés. Nous avons dans un premier temps caractérisé l'expression des marqueurs des MΦ différenciés in vitro en présence de M-CSF à partir de monocytes humains et polarisés en sous-type M1 ou M2. Nos principaux résultats montrent que les MΦ différenciés au M-CSF considérés comme des MΦ anti-inflammatoires, sont en réalité capables de s'activer vers un phénotype M1 après une stimulation au LPS/IFNγ. De plus, les marqueurs mis en évidence au cours de ce travail ont permis d'évaluer l'impact d'extraits organiques de DEP (DEPe) sur la polarisation des MΦ et plus généralement sur leur physiologie. Les DEPe altèrent l'expression de certains marqueurs M1 et M2 des MΦ, sans toutefois provoquer d'inhibition globale des processus de polarisation M1 et M2 ou de transition d'un phénotype vers un autre. Cette altération du phénotype est associée à une diminution de la réponse inflammatoire LPS-dépendante dans les MΦ M1 et des capacités chimiotactiques des MΦ M2. Les DEPe diminuent la sécrétion de certaines cytokines et chimiokines comme l'IL-6, l'IL-12p40 et le CCL18 via l'activation d'AhR et/ou de Nrf2. Parallèlement, nous montrons que les MΦ M1 et M2 exposés aux DEPe sécrètent le platelet deried growth factor B (PDGF-B), un facteur de croissance profibrosant, via l'activation d'AhR en quantité suffisante pour stimuler la prolifération de fibroblastes pulmonaires. Au total, ces travaux démontrent que les DEP possèdent des propriétés immunotoxiques vis-à-vis de la physiologie des macrophages humains polarisés in vitro. Cette immunotoxicité pourrait participer aux effets délétères de ces contaminants environnementaux urbains sur la santé humaine.Macrophages (MΦ), well-known to play a key role in immune response, also respond to environmental toxic chemicals such as diesel exhaust particles (DEP), an air pollutant recently classified as carcinogenic to humans. MΦ are heterogeneous and plastic cells which activate according to their microenvironment into either an M1 subtype (so called classically activated or pro-inflammatory) under IFNγ and LPS stimulation or an M2 subtype (so called alternatively activated or anti-inflammatory) under IL-4 and/or IL-13 stimulation. However, potential effects of DEPs on M1/M2 MΦ polarization remain poorly documented. First, we characterized the expression marker of in vitro M-CSF-differentiated MΦ from human monocytes and activated into the M1 or M2 subtypes. Our main results show that M-CSF-generated MΦ considered as anti-inflammatory are actually able to switch to an M1 phenotype after IFNγ/LPS stimulation. Furthermore, the markers identified in this study were used to assess the impact of organic extracts of DEP (DEPe) on MΦ polarization and more generally on their physiology. DEPe alter some M1 and M2 markers expressed by polarized MΦ, without causing the overall inhibition of the M1 and M2 polarization process or the switch to a different phenotype. This phenotype alteration is associated with a decrease in the LPS-dependent inflammatory response in M1 MΦ and the chemotactic capacities in M2 MΦ. DEPe decrease the secretion of some cytokines and chemokines such as IL-6, IL-12p40 and CCL18 via AhR and/or Nrf2 activation. At the same time, we show that M1 and M2 MΦ in response to DEPe are able to secrete a sufficient level of a pro-fibrotic growth factor, the platelet derived growth factor B (PDGF-B) via AhR activation, leading to stimulation of lung fibroblast proliferation. Finally, these works show that DEPe have immunotoxic properties with regards to the physiology of human in vitro polarized MΦ. This immunotoxicity may then contribute to the deleterious effects of these urban environmental contaminants on human health

AhR-dependent secretion of PDGF-BB by human classically activated macrophages exposed to DEP extracts stimulates lung fibroblast proliferation

International audienceLung diseases are aggravated by exposure to diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) found in air pollution. Macrophages are thought to play a crucial role in lung immune response to these pollutants, even if the mechanisms involved remain incompletely characterized. In the present study, we demonstrated that classically and alternative human macrophages (MΦ) exhibited increased secretion of PDGF-B in response to DEP extract (DEPe). This occurred via aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-activation because DEPe-induced PDGF-B overexpression was abrogated after AhR expression knock-down by RNA interference, in both M1 and M2 polarizing MΦ. In addition, TCDD and benzo(a)pyrene, two potent AhR ligands, also significantly increased mRNA expression of PDGF-B in M1 MΦ, whereas some weak ligands of AhR did not. We next evaluated the impact of conditioned media (CM) from MΦ culture exposed to DEPe or of recombinant PDGF-B onto lung fibroblast proliferation. The tyrosine kinase inhibitor, AG1295, prevents phosphorylations of PDGF-Rβ, AKT and ERK1/2 and the proliferation of MRC5 fibroblasts induced by recombinant PDGF-B and by CM from M1 polarizing MΦ, strongly suggesting that the PDGF-BB secreted by DEPe-exposed MΦ is sufficient to activate the PDGF-Rβ pathway of human lung fibroblasts. In conclusion, we demonstrated that human MΦ, whatever their polarization status, secrete PDGF-B in response to DEPe and that PDGF-B is a target gene of AhR. Therefore, induction of PDGF-B by DEP may participate in the deleterious effects towards human health triggered by such environmental urban contaminants

Polarization profiles of human M-CSF-generated macrophages and comparison of M1-markers in classically activated macrophages from GM-CSF and M-CSF origin.

International audienceMonocytes/macrophages (MΦ), considered as plastic cells, can differentiate into either a pro-inflammatory (M1) subtype, also known as a classically activated subtype, or an anti-inflammatory alternatively activated subtype (M2) according to their microenvironment. Phenotypic markers of mouse polarized MΦ have been extensively studied, whereas their human counterparts remain less characterized. The main goal of this study was therefore to carefully characterize phenotypic and genomic markers of primary human MΦ generated from M-CSF-treated blood monocytes and polarized towards M1 or M2 subtype upon the action of lipopolysaccharide and interferon-γ (for M1) or interleukin (IL)-4 (for M2). Membrane expression of the markers CD80 and CD200R was found to be specific of human M1 and M2 polarized MΦ, respectively, whereas, by contrast, mannose receptor (CD206) expression did not discriminate between M1 and M2. mRNA expression analysis further identified six markers of M1 polarization (IL-12p35, CXCL10, CXCL11, CCL5, CCR7 and IDO1), five markers of M2 polarization (TGF-β, CCL14, CCL22, SR-B1 and PPARγ) and transcription factors involved in MΦ polarization. Ability of human M-CSF-generated MΦ to polarize toward M1 or M2 subtype was also associated with enhanced secretion of TNFα, IL-1β, IL-12p40, CXCL10 and IL-10 (for M1) or CCL22 (for M2). Moreover, the comparison of the expression of M1 markers in M-CSF- and GM-CSF-MΦ polarized towards M1 subtype has revealed similarities. In conclusion, we demonstrated that human M-CSF MΦ can polarize toward a M1 type after IFNγ/LPS stimulation. Moreover, the M1 and M2 markers of human polarized MΦ identified in the present study may be useful to better identify human MΦ subtypes, particularly at the tissue level, in order to better understand their respective roles in the development of pathologies

Primer sequence list.

<p>Primer sequence list.</p

Effects of DEPe on cytokine and chemokine secretion during human MΦ polarization.

<p>Six-day cultured M-CSF MΦ were kept unactivated or were activated with IFNγ or with IL-4 to obtain M0, M1 and M2 MΦ, respectively, in the presence of 10 μg/ml DEPe or DMSO (UNT) during 24 h. Cytokine (A, B) and chemokine (C) levels in culture medium were determined by ELISA. (A and C) Data expressed in pg/ml (TNFα, IL-10, CCL17 and CCL18) or ng/ml (IL-8, CXCL10 and CCL22) are the means ± SEM of 8 independent experiments. (B) Data expressed in ratio of TNFα/IL-10 secretion levels (a.u: arbitrary unit) are the means ± SEM of 7 independent experiments. *p<0.05 and **p<0.01 when compared with its control counterpart, ^$$p<0.01 when compared to M1 UNT MΦ, ns: not significant.</p

DEPe activates the AhR and Nrf-2 pathways in M1 and M2 MΦ.

<p>Six-day cultured M-CSF MΦ were activated with IFNγ or with IL-4 to obtain M1 and M2 MΦ, respectively, in the presence of 10 μg/ml DEPe or 10 μM tBHQ or DMSO (Ct) during 6 h. Western blot analysis of Nrf2 and AhR protein expressions were performed with whole-cell lysates. Equal gel loading and transfer efficiency were checked by blot incubating with Abs against p38 total. Experiments were repeated, 3 times, with similar results.</p

Impact of si AhR on cytokine and chemokine secretions regulated by DEPe in M1 and M2 MΦ.

<p>Six-day cultured M-CSF MΦ were transfected with siRNAs targeting AhR (si AhR) or with non-targeting siRNAs (si Ct) and cultured for 40 h; they were activated with IFNγ ± LPS or with IL-4 to obtain LPS activated M1 MΦ and M2 MΦ, respectively, in the presence of 10 μg/ml DEPe, 10 nM TCDD or DMSO (UNT) during 8 h or 24 h. (A) Validation of si AhR efficiency: Western blot analysis of AhR protein expressions were performed with whole-cell lysates. Equal gel loading and transfer efficiency were checked by protein hybridization with Abs against HSC70. Experiments were repeated, three times, with similar results. Cells were harvested and after total RNA isolation, mRNA levels of AhR and CYP1B1 were determined by RT-qPCR assays. Data are expressed relatively to mRNA levels found in si Ct-transfected cells, arbitrarily set at the value of 1 and are the means ± SEM of at least 4 independent experiments. (B) Cytokine mRNA expression and secretion in culture medium of M1 MΦ were determined respectively by RT-qPCR and by ELISA after 8 h. (C) Chemokine mRNA expression and secretion in culture medium of M2 MΦ were determined respectively by RT-qPCR and by ELISA after 24h. Data are the means ± SEM of at least 4 independent experiments. *p<0.05 and **p<0.01 when compared with its untreated counterpart; ^$p<0.05 and ^$$p<0.01 when compared to their respective si Ct-transfected counterparts; ns: not significant.</p

Effects of DEPe on cell surface antigen expression during human MΦ polarization.

<p>Six-day cultured M-CSF MΦ were activated with IFNγ or with IL-4 to obtain M1 and M2 MΦ, respectively, in the presence of 10 μg/ml DEPe or DMSO (UNT) during 24 h. Cells were then stained with conjugated mAbs directed against the surface markers CD64 (A) and CD200R (B) and then analyzed by flow cytometry. Histograms represent the means of fluorescence intensity (MFI) ratio ± SEM of 9 independent experiments. *p<0.05 and **p<0.01 when compared with its control counterpart, ^$$p<0.01 when compared to UNT M1 MΦ; ns: not significant.</p

Effects of DEPe on polarization marker mRNA expression during human MΦ polarization.

<p>Six-day cultured M-CSF MΦ were activated with IFNγ or with IL-4 to obtain M1 and M2 MΦ, respectively, in the presence of 10 μg/ml DEPe or DMSO during 24 h. Cells were harvested and after total RNA isolation, mRNA levels were determined by RT-qPCR assays. Data are expressed relatively to mRNA levels found in control DMSO-exposed M1 <b>(A</b>) or M2 (<b>B</b>) MΦ, arbitrarily set at the value of 1 and are the means ± SEM of at least 5 independent experiments. *p<0.05, **p<0.01.</p