The Role of Cytokines in Neutrophil Development, Tissue Homing, Function and Plasticity in Health and Disease

Neutrophils are crucial innate immune cells and comprise 50-70% of the white blood cell population under homeostatic conditions. Upon infection and in cancer, blood neutrophil numbers significantly increase because of the secretion of various chemo- and cytokines by, e.g., leukocytes, pericytes, fibroblasts and endothelial cells present in the inflamed tissue or in the tumor microenvironment (TME). The function of neutrophils in cancer has recently gained considerable attention, as they can exert both pro- and anti-tumorigenic functions, dependent on the cytokine milieu present in the TME. Here, we review the effect of cytokines on neutrophil development, tissue homing, function and plasticity in cancer and autoimmune diseases as well as under physiological conditions in the bone marrow, bloodstream and various organs like the spleen, kidney, liver, lung and lymph nodes. In addition, we address several promising therapeutic options, such as cytokine therapy, immunocytokines and immunotherapy, which aim to exploit the anti-tumorigenic potential of neutrophils in cancer treatment or block excessive neutrophil-mediated inflammation in autoimmune diseases

Characterization of human Fc alpha receptor transgenic mice: comparison of CD89 expression and antibody-dependent tumor killing between mouse strains

Since mice do not express a homologue of the human Fc alpha receptor (FcαRI or CD89), a transgenic mouse model was generated in four different backgrounds (C57BL/6, BALB/c, SCID and NXG) expressing the FcαRI under the endogenous human promoter. In this study, we describe previously unknown characteristics of this model, such as the integration site of the FCAR gene, the CD89 expression pattern in healthy male and female mice and in tumor-bearing mice, expression of myeloid activation markers and FcγRs and IgA/CD89-mediated tumor killing capacity. In all mouse strains, CD89 expression is highest in neutrophils, intermediate on other myeloid cells such as eosinophils and DC subsets and inducible on, among others, monocytes, macrophages and Kupffer cells. CD89 expression levels are highest in BALB/c and SCID, lower in C57BL/6 and lowest in NXG mice. Additionally, CD89 expression on myeloid cells is increased in tumor-bearing mice across all mouse strains. Using Targeted Locus Amplification, we determined that the hCD89 transgene has integrated in chromosome 4. Furthermore, we established that wildtype and hCD89 transgenic mice have a similar composition and phenotype of immune cells. Finally, IgA-mediated killing of tumor cells is most potent with neutrophils from BALB/c and C57BL/6 and less with neutrophils from SCID and NXG mice. However, when effector cells from whole blood are used, SCID and BALB/c are most efficient, since these strains have a much higher number of neutrophils. Overall, hCD89 transgenic mice provide a very powerful model to test the efficacy of IgA immunotherapy against infectious diseases and cancer

Studies of PDGF receptor signaling in vitro and in vivo

Platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) signaling is essential for proliferation, migration and survival of cells of mesenchymal origin; however, its deregulation has been associated with various diseases, including cancer. The aim of this thesis was to clarify the molecular mechanisms of PDGFR signaling regulation. We have studied PDGFR downregulation, identified the E3 ligases and deubiquitinases (DUBs) acting on the receptor, characterized the role of the downstream effector Erk5, as well as elucidated the role of PDGFRβ isoform in tumor growth and angiogenesis. As Erk5 activation has been associated with tumorigenesis, it is important to delineate the pathway from activated PDGFR to Erk5. Here, we demonstrate not only a complex mechanism for PDGF-induced Erk5 activation that involves Mek5, Mekk2, Mek1/2, PI3K and classical PKCs, but also a novel function for Erk5 by showing that PDGF-BB affects BMP-Smad signaling in an Erk5 pathway-dependent manner, indicating a crosstalk between tyrosine kinase receptor and serine/threonine receptor signaling. By investigating PDGFRβ downregulation, we demonstrated that ubiquitination of PDGFRβ, mediated by Cbl-b and c-Cbl, is essential for the receptor internalization, signaling, as well as downstream biological responses. Additionally, as ubiquitination is a reversible post-translational modification, we identified USP4 as one of the DUBs acting on PDGFRβ and discovered that USP4 interacts with PDGFRβ, removing both K48- and K63-linked polyubiquitin chains, and increases its stability, in both normal and cancer cells. Although several studies have highlighted the therapeutic benefit of PDGFR inhibition in cancer treatment, all available PDGFR kinase inhibitors have secondary targets; consequently, the details underlying the importance of PDGFR in tumorigenesis remain unknown. By targeting specifically PDGFRβ in the stroma of various tumor models, we showed that specific inhibition of PDGFRβ signaling suppresses growth of tumors with high levels of PDGF-BB, whereas the multi-target kinase inhibitor imatinib has less effect, indicating the significance of selective targeting of PDGFRβ. Our data provide new insights into the molecular events underlying PDGFRβ signaling and downregulation, highlight its importance as cancer therapeutic target and lead the way for further discoveries

PDGF-BB enhances collagen gel contraction through a PI3K-PLCγ-PKC-cofilin pathway

Cell-mediated contraction of collagenous matrices is modulated by various growth factors and cytokines, such as platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB). Here we used a genetic cell model to delineate defined signaling pathways that enhance collagen gel contraction downstream of ligand-stimulated platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β (PDGF-Rβ). Our data show that PDGF BB-enhanced activations of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K) and phospholipase Cγ (PLCγ) were necessary for PDGF-enhanced collagen gel contraction. Importantly, other defined signaling pathways down-stream of PDGF-Rβ were, however, dispensable. The decisive roles for PI3K and PLCγ were corroborated by experiments using selective inhibitors. Furthermore, we show that de-phosphorylation and thereby activation of cofilin that is important for the turnover of actin filaments, is depended on PI3K and PLCγ down-stream of PDGF-Rβ. Moreover, inhibition of protein kinase C (PKC) by GÖ6976 and bisindolylmaleimide-II abolished cofilin de-phosphorylation, as well as PDGF-enhanced contraction. In contrast, activation of the PKC protein family by 4β-phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) did not accelerate collagen gel contraction although it induced long-term cofilin de-phosphorylation, showing the need of a dynamic control of cofilin de-phosphorylation for PDGF-enhanced collagen gel contraction. Taken together, our data point to the involvement of a PI3K/PLCγ-PKC-cofilin pathway in both PDGF-enhanced cofilin de-phosphorylation and PDGF-enhanced collagen gel contraction

Deubiquitinating enzymes USP4 and USP17 finetune the trafficking of PDGFR beta and affect PDGF-BB-induced STAT3 signalling

Interaction of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) isoforms with their receptors results in activation and internalization of receptors, with a concomitant activation of downstream signalling pathways. Ubiquitination of PDGFRs serves as a mark to direct the internalization and sorting of the receptors. By overexpressing a panel of deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), we found that USP17 and USP4 efficiently deubiquitinate PDGF receptor beta (PDGFR beta) and are able to remove both Lys63 and Lys48-linked polyubiquitin chains from the receptor. Deubiquitination of PDGFR beta did not affect its stability, but regulated the timing of its trafficking, whereby USP17 prolonged the presence of the receptor at the cell surface, while USP4 affected the speed of trafficking towards early endosomes. Induction of each of the DUBs in BJhTERT fibroblasts and U2OS osteosarcoma cells led to prolonged and/or shifted activation of STAT3 in response to PDGF-BB stimulation, which in turn led to increased transcriptional activity of STAT3. Induction of USP17 promoted acute upregulation of the mRNA expression of STAT3-inducible genes STAT3, CSF1, junB and c-myc, while causing long-term changes in the expression of myc and CDKN1A. Deletion of USP17 was lethal to fibroblasts, while deletion of USP4 led to a decreased proliferative response to stimulation by PDGF-BB. Thus, USP17- and USP4-mediated changes in ubiquitination of PDFGR beta lead to dysregulated signalling and transcription downstream of STAT3, resulting in defects in the control of cell proliferation

Specific targeting of PDGFR beta in the stroma inhibits growth and angiogenesis in tumors with high PDGF-BB expression

PDGF-BB/PDGFR beta signaling plays an important role during vascularization by mediating pericyte recruitment to the vasculature, promoting the integrity and function of vessels. Until now it has not been possible to assess the specific role of PDGFR beta signaling in tumor progression and angiogenesis due to lack of appropriate animal models and molecular tools. Methods: In the present study, we used a transgenic knock-in mouse strain carrying a silent mutation in the PDGFR beta ATP binding site that allows specific targeting of PDGFR beta using the compound 1-NaPP1. To evaluate the impact of selective PDGFR beta inhibition of stromal cells on tumor growth we investigated four tumor cell lines with no or low PDGFR beta expression, i.e. Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC), EO771 breast carcinoma, B16 melanoma and a version of B16 that had been engineered to overexpress PDGF-BB (B16/PDGF-BB). Results: We found that specific impairment of PDGFR beta kinase activity by 1-NaPP1 treatment efficiently suppressed growth in tumors with high expression of PDGF-BB, i.e. LLC and B16/PDGF-BB, while the clinically used PDGFR beta kinase inhibitor imatinib did not suppress tumor growth. Notably, tumors with low levels of PDGF-BB, i.e. EO771 and B16, neither responded to 1-NaPP1 nor to imatinib treatment. Inhibition of PDGFR beta by either drug impaired tumor vascularization and also affected pericyte coverage; however, specific targeting of PDGFR beta by 1-NaPP1 resulted in a more pronounced decrease in vessel function with increased vessel apoptosis in high PDGF-BB expressing tumors, compared to treatment with imatinib. In vitro analysis of PDGFR beta ASKA mouse embryo fibroblasts and the mesenchymal progenitor cell line 10T1/2 revealed that PDGF-BB induced NG2 expression, consistent with the in vivo data. Conclusion: Specific targeting of PDGFR beta signaling significantly inhibits tumor progression and angiogenesis depending on PDGF-BB expression. Our data suggest that targeting PDGFR beta in the tumor stroma could have therapeutic value in patients with high tumor PDGF-BB expression.Correction in: THERANOSTICS, Volume: 10, Issue: 16, Pages: 7406-7408, DOI: 10.7150/thno.48039</p

Effective, Long-Term, Neutrophil Depletion Using a Murinized Anti-Ly-6G 1A8 Antibody

Neutrophils are crucial innate immune cells but also play key roles in various diseases, such as cancer, where they can perform both pro- and anti-tumorigenic functions. To study the function of neutrophils in vivo, these cells are often depleted using Ly-6G or Gr-1 depleting antibodies or genetic “knockout” models. However, these methods have several limitations, being only partially effective, effective for a short term, and lacking specificity or the ability to conditionally deplete neutrophils. Here, we describe the use of a novel murinized Ly-6G (1A8) antibody. The murinized Ly-6G antibody is of the mouse IgG2a isotype, which is the only isotype that can bind all murine Fcγ receptors and C1q and is, therefore, able to activate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), antibody-dependent phagocytosis (ADCP) and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) pathways. We show that this mouse-Ly-6G antibody shows efficient, long-term, and near-complete (>90%) neutrophil depletion in the peripheral blood of C57Bl6/J, Balb/c, NXG and SCID mice for up to at least four weeks, using a standardized neutrophil depletion strategy. In addition, we show that neutrophils are efficiently depleted in the blood and tumor tissue of IMR32 tumor-bearing SCID mice, analyzed six weeks after the start of the treatment

AtHESPERIN: a novel regulator of circadian rhythms with poly(A)-degrading activity in plants

<p>We report the identification and characterization of a novel gene, <i>AtHesperin</i> (<i>AtHESP</i>) that codes for a deadenylase in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i>. The gene is under circadian clock-gene regulation and has similarity to the mammalian <i>Nocturnin</i>. AtHESP can efficiently degrade poly(A) substrates exhibiting allosteric kinetics. Size exclusion chromatography and native electrophoresis coupled with kinetic analysis support that the native enzyme is oligomeric with at least 3 binding sites. Knockdown and overexpression of <i>AtHESP</i> in plant lines affects the expression and rhythmicity of the clock core oscillator genes <i>TOC1</i> and <i>CCA1</i>. This study demonstrates an evolutionary conserved poly(A)-degrading activity in plants and suggests deadenylation as a mechanism involved in the regulation of the circadian clock. A role of <i>AtHESP</i> in stress response in plants is also depicted.</p