Get off my land! Towards mutual understanding in archaeological field conflicts

Genuine community participation in research and conservation projects is crucial for sustainable protection, management and development of archaeological sites, especially in sub-Saharan Africa where the scientific value of such resources is less appreciated. Local people often become suspicious of and discontented with field researchers who do not inform them of what they are doing around their courtyard, just as they are displeased with government officials who impose conservation projects upon them. Their discontent often comes for good reasons: either the given research or project is not a priority to them or its objectives differ from theirs. As a result, a conflict of expectations emerges, often leading local communities into disliking the project and hence investing little or just superficial commitment to it. Such feelings may be expressed verbally in formal or informal gatherings or through indifference, resentment, or vandalism, all of which are detrimental to the proper management of the heritage resource in question. Using specific cases of researchers/administrators-villagers differences and conflicts of expectations experienced in various places in Tanzania, the paper discusses causes of such differences, critically examines the Community Participatory technique exposing its strengths and weaknesses, as well as suggests solutions and outlining potential benefits should villagers be genuinely incorporated in such undertakings

Legal regulation of prices in Tanzania : an examination of the Regulation of Prices Act 1973 as a tool of social change and development

Drawing mainly from the Tazanian experience this study attempts to review the principal issues in the legal regulation of prices, by identifying both the general and specific importance of law in this respect. The position I shall present is that legal control is both necessary and desirable for the welfare and social development of the people. The key issue is whether the market-place will perform its function satisfactory: Will it produce socially desirable results? If it will not, why will it not? And will legal regulation help to do the job a little better? In an attempt to answer some of these questions, first of all, outline the basic issues raised by the study in the first Chapter. Then I examine the general case for price controls - the theory about the controls, the motives and reasons for their imposition and the manner in which they are effected in different economic systems. This is done in Chapter Two. Relying most on the available literature on the regulatory process, this Chapter also looks at the relationship between law and economic regulation and concludes that the effectiveness of law depends on the existence of a conducive socio-economic environment. In Chapter Three I describe the past record of price control laws in Tanzania. I conclude that despite the failure in the past, the controls still constitute an important policy instrument in the transition to socialism. In Chapters Four and Five I describe the manner in which the current regulations are implemented and the problems encountered. I conclude that the operational performance of the controls is constrained by internal and external influences on the economic and political life of the country. In the concluding Chapter I assess the impact of the controls: Do the controls work? Do people buy goods at the controlled prices? Why today the controls are almost popularly accepted as worthwhile? I conclude that while there may be no measurable economic gains derived by consumers, the controls have a stabilising effect on the social and political front. In the final section I argue that the future success of the legislation depends on creating a correspondence between the economic structures and the control system. What makes the controls ineffective is not so much defects in the law but the contradictions between the orientation of and functioning of the economic system and the ideological commitment

Performance-Based Financing: Report on Feasibility and Implementation Options Final September 2007

This study examines the feasibility of introducing a performance-related bonus scheme in the health sector. After describing the Tanzania health context, we define “Performance-Based Financing”, examine its rationale and review the evidence on its effectiveness. The following sections systematically assess the potential for applying the scheme in Tanzania. On the basis of risks and concerns identified, detailed design options and recommendations are set out. The report concludes with a (preliminary) indication of the costs of such a scheme and recommends a way forward for implementation. We prefer the name “Payment for Performance” or “P4P”. This is because what is envisaged is a bonus payment that is earned by meeting performance targets1. The dominant financing for health care delivery would remain grant-based as at present. There is a strong case for introducing P4P. Its main purpose will be to motivate front-line health workers to improve service delivery performance. In recent years, funding for council health services has increased dramatically, without a commensurate increase in health service output. The need to tighten focus on results is widely acknowledged. So too is the need to hold health providers more accountable for performance at all levels, form the local to the national. P4P is expected to encourage CHMTs and health facilities to “manage by results”; to identify and address local constraints, and to find innovative ways to raise productivity and reach under-served groups. As well as leveraging more effective use of all resources, P4P will provide a powerful incentive at all levels to make sure that HMIS information is complete, accurate and timely. It is expected to enhance accountability between health facilities and their managers / governing committees as well as between the Council Health Department and the Local Government Authority. Better performance-monitoring will enable the national level to track aggregate progress against goals and will assist in identifying under-performers requiring remedial action. We recommend a P4P scheme that provides a monetary team bonus, dependent on a whole facility reaching facility-specific service delivery targets. The bonus would be paid quarterly and shared equally among health staff. It should target all government health facilities at the council level, and should also reward the CHMT for “whole council” performance. All participating facilities/councils are therefore rewarded for improvement rather than absolute levels of performance. Performance indicators should not number more than 10, should represent a “balanced score card” of basic health service delivery, should present no risk of “perverse incentive” and should be readily measurable. The same set of indicators should be used by all. CHMTs would assist facilities in setting targets and monitoring performance. RHMTs would play a similar role with respect to CHMTs. The Council Health Administration would provide a “check and balance” to avoid target manipulation and verify bonus payments due. The major constraint on feasibility is the poor state of health information. Our study confirmed the findings of previous ones, observing substantial omission and error in reports from facilities to CHMTs. We endorse the conclusion of previous reviewers that the main problem lies not with HMIS design, but with its functioning. We advocate a particular focus on empowering and enabling the use of information for management by facilities and CHMTs. We anticipate that P4P, combined with a major effort in HMIS capacity building – at the facility and council level – will deliver dramatic improvements in data quality and completeness. We recommend that the first wave of participating councils are selected on the basis that they can first demonstrate robust and accurate data. We anticipate that P4P for facilities will not deliver the desired benefits unless they have a greater degree of control to solve their own problems. We therefore propose - as a prior and essential condition – the introduction of petty cash imprests for all health facilities. We believe that such a measure would bring major benefits even to facilities that have not yet started P4P. It should also empower Health Facility Committees to play a more meaningful role in health service governance at the local level. We recommend to Government that P4P bonuses, as described here, are implemented across Mainland Tanzania on a phased basis. The main constraint on the pace of roll-out is the time required to bring information systems up to standard. Councils that are not yet ready to institute P4P should get an equivalent amount of money – to be used as general revenue to finance their comprehensive council health plans. We also recommend that up-to-date reporting on performance against service delivery indicators is made a mandatory requirement for all councils and is also agreed as a standard requirement for the Joint Annual Health Sector Review. P4P can also be applied on the “demand-side” – for example to encourage women to present in case of obstetric emergencies. There is a strong empirical evidence base from other countries to demonstrate that such incentives can work. We recommend a separate policy decision on whether or not to introduce demand-side incentives. In our view, they are sufficiently promising to be tried out on an experimental basis. When taken to national scale (all councils, excepting higher level hospitals), the scheme would require annual budgetary provision of about 6 billion shillings for bonus payments. This is equivalent to 1% of the national health budget, or about 3% of budgetary resources for health at the council level. We anticipate that design and implementation costs would amount to about 5 billion shillings over 5 years – the majority of this being devoted to HMIS strengthening at the facility level across the whole country

When Shikamoo Mama/Baba replaces Tukuwoni Mawu/Dadi: An account of shifting access rituals among the Ngoni of Tanzania

The current paper is an attempt at providing an ethnographic description of Tanzanian Ngoni access rituals (greetings) considering verbal and visual aspects of these communicative rou-tines. Three methods of data collection were used, namely: role-play, semi-structured inter-view, and observation. The role-plays were used in order to see how the Ngoni apply their knowledge of this kind of access ritual still acquired in the course of growing up in their communities. Role-plays were recorded with a digital camcorder after the interviews had tak-en place. Semi-structured interviews were meant to provide insights into diachronic develop-ments such as how the expression of politeness through greetings may have changed. Obser-vation method was meant to capture behavioural patterns shown during greeting exchanges and notes were taken immediately thereafter. The main findings are that due to pervasive con-tact between Ngoni and Swahili, greetings tend to be brief today and there is a widespread use of code-switching by all age groups. The tendency to prefer Swahili is viewed by older mem-bers of the community as lack of respect whereas the younger generations regard the use of Swahili as more appropriate and as a reflection of social changes that have been taking place in the community

The Tanzania Family Planning Training Program:The Impact of an Innovative Training Strategy on Reproductive and Child Health Service Performance of Health Attendants in Tanzania

This report is based on a study, implemented in Kasulu and Kibondo districts in Kigoma Region, Tanzania, to assess the impact of a health attendants’ pilot training strategy on reproductive and child health (RCH) services. The strategy was developed and implemented by the RCH-Unit of Ministry of Health (MOH) with technical assistance from Intrah/PRIME and was implemented with financial support from USAID. The training strategy, covering a period of four months (July to October, 1998), used a combination of on-the-job-training (OJT) and traditional central and distance-based learning (DBL). The training was divided into four modules. Modules 1 and 3 were centrally based while Modules 2 and 4 used OJT and DBL in which the HAs remained at the facilities where they worked. The DBL was backed by supportive supervision from facility in-change staff as onsite supervisors, district-based supervisors and trainers and regional trainers. It also utilized two key leaning aids (developed as part of this strategy): a handbook and solar-powered cassette player with audiotapes. Each trainee was given a solar/battery-powered cassette player and six audiotapes containing course content. The study utilized three different intervention designs to assess three different levels of impact. The study used pre-and post-test assessments of knowledge and skills to determine whether learning occurred among trainees as a result of the training. A non-equivalent control group design was used to compare whether the training significantly influenced provision of reproductive and child health services in trainee facilities over facilities whether providers had not been trained. The study requested feedback from various players on the HA training strategy. This assessment addressed attributes such as appropriateness, acceptance, achievement of the project’s objectives, how the project was comprehended/perceived and the reliability of this training approach. The HA training led to acquisition of knowledge as indicated by a significant change in the mean score of Module 1 pre-test (32.8) compared to post-test mean score (71.4)(P<.05). A similar trend was found in module 3 in which the mean pre-test score (70.5) was significantly lower than the post-test mean score (87.1)(P<.05). The skills assessment demonstrated a substantial gain in two skills: antenatal clinic client assessment and conducting growth monitoring. However, counseling services, care for mothers and neonates during the postpartum period and care during and monitoring progress in labor did not improve. As a result, the investigators conducted that HAs gained adequate skills in some areas while continued learning is essential in others, possibly through further OJT by the RCH trained CO/ACO at the HA work site. Comparison sites are also in need of improved training to improve their RH/FP skills. The data collection period for the service statistics assessment was divided into three blocks: prior to training (March-June 1998), during training (July-October 1998). The intervention group comprised 29 health facilities while the comparison group contained 25 facilities. For the comparison group, data were collected only for the periods before and after training. Six study instruments (five questionnaire and one data collection sheet) were used as data collection tools. From the RCH-Unit through the regional, district and facility levels, the training approach was considered to be suitable, especially for the targeted (HA) cadre. It was agreed that this target group required a training approach that emphasized practice oriented learning methods instead of a traditional didactic approach. To meet these needs, the project provided two key learning aids: the handbook and cassette tapes. The handbook was considered to be appropriate for three reasons: the handbook satisfactorily covered the training content, it was well illustrated, and it utilized language appropriate to the target audience. The cassette tapes were considered to be suitable learning aids because they were audible and contained appropriate and adequate content. However, audibility reportedly decreased sharply as battery power diminished. Nevertheless, feedback also highlighted area for improvement. Respondents pointed out that the approach was expensive. District planning boards that are responsible for financing training in the post health sector reform (HSR) era may not be able to afford to replicate the training. As a result, they may revert to the traditional central training approach. Respondents also reported that the use of solar powered cassette players were found to be vulnerable to frequent breakdown and other minor mishaps, As a result of these failings, a recommendation was made that ordinary battery-powered cassette players be adopted for future training. A recommendation was also made to review and edit the handbook was easy to understand and the illustrations were clear, they reported that there was room for improvement in these areas as well. The sustainability of this training strategy depends on the availability of sufficient funding to carry out all of the project’s elements, especially learning at the work site. The feasibility of replicating this successful intervention remains to be demonstrated.The HA training strategy set out to achieve certain objectives: develop a curriculum and two complimentary learning aids; select and prepare trainers, and both on and offsite supervisors; update facility in charge staff on RCH; and train a selected number of HAs. It was also planned as a pilot study for testing all of the components and documenting the strengths and weaknesses of the approach. In addition, the training was geared at empowered both the DHMT members and staff at the intervention facilities. This evaluation conducted that the HA training strategy achieved these objective. \u

Sexual harassment in public transport among female university students in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Background: Globally, women and girls are subjected to various forms of sexual harassment while using public transport daily. Objective: To determine the prevalence of sexual harassment and identify different forms and associated risk factors among female university students who use public transport in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Methods: A cross-sectional study design using a questionnaire was employed to collect data. Data were collected from female first-year undergraduate students, who use public transport and are aged 18 years and above studying at the University of Dar es Salaam and Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Results: The overall prevalence of sexual harassment on public transport was 88%. Study participants reported the highest levels of sexual harassment (91%). Verbal harassment was the most common form of sexual harassment (95%), and being called names such as baby, sweet, honey or love was reported by most students (78%). Factors associated with sexual harassment on public transport were: overcrowded vehicles (AOR=2.90, 95% CI: 0.09-4.50) and use of public transport as a form of transport (AOR=4.54, 95% CI: 0.40-8.90). &nbsp;Conclusion: The study findings highlight the need for the implementation of plausible interventions on the issue of sexual harassment through awareness campaigns and the implementation of modern surveillance and reporting systems in public spaces

Influence of Service Digitalization on the Performance of Commercial Banks in Tanzania: A Case of CRDB Bank Plc Headquarters.

Commercial banks in Tanzania have been quickly transforming and automating their operations to cater for the pace of technological advancement. The current study investigates the influence of digitalization on the performance of digitized commercial banks, more specifically, CRDB Bank Plc, on its head offices, which is one of the banks that automates quickly. More specifically, the study extracted the level of service digitalization in CRDB Bank Plc and how influential mobile banking, internet banking, atomated teller machines, and point of sales are to the performance of CRDB Bank Plc. The study used a quantitative approach and primary data, which was drawn from a sample of 80 staff in various CRDB Bank Plc departments in head quarters, processed in the SPSS program, and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The sample from the population was selected through a purposive sampling technique. The results showed that there is a very strong positive relationship between mobile banking, Internet banking, ATMs, and POS systems against banks' performance. The study recommends that banks embark on educating and creating awareness among their customers on the benefits of electronic banking and the charges involved. They should also invest more in electronic banking to reach more customers electronically by introducing other digital platforms and increasing their operations. The study has shown that digital banking has a positive influence on bank performance, thus they should offer more targeted online services as well as come up with more technology-based services that are easily reachable by customers. Keyword: Service, Digitalization, Performance, Commercial Banks

Capacity for providing caesarean section services in selected health centres and district hospitals in Tanzania

Objective: Tanzania has a high maternal mortality ratio of 556 per 100,000 live births. Timely caesarean sections avert mortality due to life threatening conditions like obstructed labour. This study assessed capacity of selected health facilities to provide caesarean sections in terms of infrastructure, equipment, essential supplies and skill mix. Methods: A cross-sectional mixed methods design was used to include systematic observations using highly structured checklists to determine the adequacy of infrastructure, functional status of equipment, availability of supplies and skill mix. An interview guide and a key-informant interview guide were used to collect data from assistant medical officers and key informants respectively. Descriptive data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS software package.Results: Deficit for doctors ranged between 3 (37.5%) and 5 (62.5%) per each district hospital. Two out of 3 health centres did not have doctors. Deficit for assistant medical doctors ranged between 10 (62.5%) and 11 (68.8%) per each district hospital. In terms of absolute numbers, assistant medical doctors were more than doctors. Not all facilities had all the equipment, infrastructure or supplies. Challenges cited by most assistant medical officers were; shortage of theatre-trained nurses (91%; n=21), theatres not functioning (61%; n=14), inadequate blood supply (87%; n=20) and inadequate equipment (96%; n=22).Conclusion: Capacity of health facilities to provide caesarean sections was found to be sub-optimal due to health workforce shortages, inadequate infrastructure, equipment and supplies, thus increasing the risk of maternal deaths. These findings are useful in informing strategies to reduce maternal mortality. Funding: College of Health Sciences of the University of KwaZulu-Natal Keywords: Task sharing, skill mix, surgical equipment, assistant medical officers, infrastructure, caesarean sections, obstetric drugs and medical supplie

Family life education project for female adolescents in Temeke Municipality, Dar-es-Salaam

As adolescents mature and become sexually active, they face serious health risks and yet their access to appropriate information, guidance, or health care services is very limited. In sub-Saharan Africa there is a rise in overall adolescent fertility rates and an increase in childbearing among women who do not appear to be married and drop out of school due to pregnancy. In an attempt to rectify the situation one Non Governmental Organization, the Family Planning Association of Tanzanian (UMATI) has established a Teenage Mother Centre in Temeke Municipality, Dar-es-Salaam. The root cause of the problem emanates from the fact that the young girls do not know that by engaging in unprotected sex they could easily become pregnant. The adolescents engage in unsafe sexual intercourse because they desire to have gifts, presents and other social needs from boy or men friends. Most of the parents could not provide their daughters what the male friends did. The young girls that drop out from school due to pregnancy differ and do so at different levels. The first group is formed by girls who are very bright and arrangements are being made to place them in secondary schools. The second group requires training in vocational skills so that they can be self employed and the third group are to be helped to complete their basic primary school education. A study conducted to assess the reproductive knowledge, attitudes and practices among female adolescents in the Municipality revealed that there is limited reproductive knowledge among young girls mainly due to limited access to reproductive health information. A Trainer's Manual on adolescence has been developed by the researcher in an attempt to fill the gap. Addressing this problem of female adolescent school drop out due to pregnancy will enable the youths to complete primary school and thereafter become socio-economically productive members of the community. (Author abstract)Mapunda, P. S. (2007). Family life education project for female adolescents in Temeke Municipality, Dar-es-Salaam. Retrieved from http://academicarchive.snhu.eduMaster of Science (M.S.)School of Community Economic Developmen

Determinants of Mobile Marketing Adoption among SMTEs in Tanzania.

This study aimed to assess the determinants of Mobile Marketing Adoption (MMA) among Small and Medium Tourism Enterprises (SMTEs) in Tanzania. The study used three constructs: attitude, subjective norm and perceived behaviour control from the original Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). The study adopted a quantitative explanatory research design and utilized a survey strategy. A stratified sampling technique was used to sample three tourist regions: Arusha, Dar es Salaam and Unguja. From these three strata, random sampling was used to select 344 decision-makers in the Small and Medium Tourism Enterprises (SMTEs from the respective stratum. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was employed in data analysis using IBM AMOS version 20. The findings revealed that attitude and perceived behaviour control positively and significantly influence MMA among SMTEs in Tanzania, while subjective norm showed an insignificant effect. Based on the findings, the study recommends that SMTEs have to adopt mobile marketing. The enterprises should also develop a mobile marketing platform that will be compatible with their daily business operations. Likewise, the government should develop a regulatory framework that could speed up the adoption of mobile marketing by increasing trust, technological knowledge, and security in this technology. Thus, this study concludes that attitude (compatibility, trust, ease of use, clarity and understandability) and perceived behaviour control (regulatory framework, financial structure) in which tourism enterprises operate have a positive and significant influence on the MMA. Keywords: Mobile Marketing, Adoption, SMTEs, Tourism, Tanzania, TP