Beliefs as dispositions to make judgments

© 2023 The Authors. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License.Smithies’ conception of belief has two noteworthy components: first, the claim that beliefs are fully constituted by dispositions to cause (conscious) judgments (132).2 Second, the claim that judgments have phenomenology: there's something it's like’ to make a judgment (4). Indeed, Smithies holds that judgments have both attitude- and content-specific phenomenology—that's to say that the judgment that p has a certain phenomenal character in virtue of being a judgment that p (rather than, say, a desire that p) and another, interlocking, character in virtue of being a judgment that p (rather than, say, a judgment that q). Let's label each component for easy reference: "one–track disposition": Beliefs are fully constituted by dispositions to cause judgments. "j–phenomenology": Judgments have (attitude- and content-specific) phenomenal character/s. I'll discuss both components, as well as the arguments Smithies gives in their support. It'll emerge, as we go, why this conception of belief is important to his overall project in ERO. The arguments can be divided into those that support the full conception (one–track disposition & j–phenomenology), and those that specifically support j–phenomenology. Smithies argues, first, that the conception of beliefs as one-track dispositions to make conscious judgments (best) explains the distinction between beliefs and sub-doxastic states (124–38; §2–3 below). Second, he argues, it explains Accessibilism about justification (148–52, 165–75; §4), which he thinks can be independently motivated (223 ff.). Next he argues that j–phenomenology explains phenomenal contrast cases featuring judgments (140–4; §5) as well as the ‘introspective datum’ that “we can sometimes know by introspection alone which judgments we're currently making” (145–8; §6). The best explanation of this, Smithies argues, is that judgments have phenomenal content and force. (And the best explanation of our introspective knowledge of what we believe is that beliefs are one-track dispositions to make such judgments [148].)publishedVersio

Sepsis och osteomyelit hos föl

Sepsis och osteomyelit är två allvarliga sjukdomar som kan drabba föl. Nyfödda föl är mottagliga för infektioner då de har ett outvecklat immunförsvar och befinner sig i en ny miljö. För att förhindra sjukdom är det av största vikt att fölet får i sig råmjölk av god kvalité inom de första timmarna, eftersom failure of passive transfer (FPT) är den vanligaste orsaken till att föl drabbas av sepsis. FPT innebär att fölet har ett bristande förvärvat immunförsvar eftersom IgG antikroppar från stoets råmjölk ej tagits upp på ett optimalt sätt. Vid sepsis ses en immunologisk överreaktion på infektion av patogena mikroorganismer vilket leder till en systemisk inflammation. Tillståndet är allvarligt och hör till de vanligaste sjukdoms- och dödsorsakerna hos föl. Idag är överlevnadsgraden för föl med sepsis 32-80%, jämfört med 25% på 1980-talet. Osteomyelit innebär en inflammation i ben som involverar benmärg. Vanligast hos föl är hematogen osteomyelit, vilket innebär att patogena mikroorganismer som kan adherera till och har affinitet för ben, har spridits till benet via blod. Beroende på fölets ålder förekommer osteomyelit av S-, E-, P- och T-typ i varierande grad. Morfologin är baserad på osteomyelitens lokalisering i benet. S-typ innebär att ledkapselns innermembran är drabbat, vid E-typ ses inflammation i epifysens del av tillväxtbrosket. P-typ innebär istället osteomyelit i metafysens tillväxtbrosk och vid T-typ är ben i karpus eller tarsus drabbade. Lokaliseringen är starkt kopplat till ändrat blodflöde i benet. Hos unga föl finns det blodkärl i rörbenen som förbinder epifysens och metafysens tillväxtplatta, vilket gör att E-typ är vanligast i denna åldersgrupp. Hos äldre föl där dessa kärl har tillbakabildats är P-typ istället vanligare, då det dåliga blodflödet i metafysens loopar underlättar för bakterier att fästa in. Enterobacteriaceae (i Sverige framförallt Escherichia coli), Streptococcus och Actinobacillus hör till vanliga bakterier som isolerats från blodprov och benbiopsi från föl med sepsis och osteomyelit. Överlevnadsprognosen för föl med sepsis och osteomyelit och ett eventuellt samband mellan dessa sjukdomar undersöks i denna litteraturstudie. Upp till 45% av föl med sepsis drabbas även av infektioner i rörelseapparaten i form av septisk artrit och/eller osteomyelit. Behandlingen som väntar är svår, lång och kostsam och utan garantier för överlevnad. Dessutom är det viktigt att behandlingen inleds i tid då risken att avlida ökar med sex gånger för varje dygn behandlingen försenas. Etiologi och utbredning av osteomyelit är också avgörande för prognosen.Sepsis and osteomyelitis are two serious diseases among foals. New born foals are sensitive to infections due to an undeveloped immune system in combination with exposure to a new environment. In order to prevent illness it is very important that the foal gets colostrum during its first hours as failure of passive transfer (FPT) is the most common cause of sepsis among foals. A foal with FPT has a compromised acquired immune system due to a non-optimal transfer of IgG antibodies from the mare’s colostrum to the foal. An immunologic overreaction on pathogenic microorganisms is seen in sepsis, which will lead to a systemic inflammation. The condition is serious and one of the most common cause to illness and death in foals. Today 32-80% of the foals with sepsis will survive, compared to 25% in the 1980s. Osteomyelitis is an inflammation in bone that involves the bone marrow. Most common in foals is haematogenous osteomyelitis, which means that pathogenic microorganisms, with affinity for bone and ability to adhere to bone, will reach the bone from blood. Depending on the age of the foal different types of osteomyelitis occur (S-, E-, P- or T-type). The morphology is based on the localisation of osteomyelitis in the bone. In S-type the inflammation will occur in the synovial membrane, whereas in E-type the epiphyseal gowth plate is affected. P-type osteomyelitis is seen in the metaphyseal part of growth plate and in Ttype bones in carpus or tarsus are infected. The location of osteomyelitis is strongly correlated with the changing blood flow in the bone. Young foals have transvessels through the physis, therefore E-type is most common in this age group. In older foals these vessels have degenerated and the P-type will dominate. This is due to the low blood flow in the metaphysical loops that enables bacteria to attach. Enterobacteriaceae (mainly Escherichia coli in Sweden), Streptococcus and Actinobacillus are among the most common bacteria isolated in blood- and bone samples from foals with sepsis and osteomyelitis. Survival in foals with sepsis and osteomyelitis and a possible correlation between the diseases are investigated in this literature study. As much as 45% of foals with sepsis will acquire orthopaedic infections as well (septic artritis and/or osteomyelitis). The treatment is difficult, long-term and expensive, without guarantee for survival. Duration, propagation and etiology are crucial for survival. If the treatment is delayed by 24h the foal is six times more likely not to survive

Indications for percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and survival in old adults

Background : Many diseases striking old adults result in eating difficulties. Indications for selecting individuals for percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) are unclear and everybody may not benefit from the procedure. Objective : The aim of this study was to evaluate indications for and survival after PEG insertion in patients older than 65 years. Design and Methods : A retrospective analysis including age, gender, diagnosis, indication, and date of death was made in 201 consecutive individuals, 94 male, mean age 79±7 years, who received a nutritional gastrostomy. Results: Dysphagia was present in 86% of the patients and stroke was the most common diagnosis (49%). Overall median survival was 123 days and 30-day mortality was 22%. Patients with dementia and Mb Parkinson had the longest survival (i.e. 244 and 233 days), while those with other neurological diseases, and head and neck malignancy had the shortest (i.e. 75 and 106 days). There was no difference in mortality in patients older or younger than 80 years, except in patients with dementia. Conclusions: Old age should not be a contraindication for PEG. A high 30-day mortality indicates that there is a need of better criteria for selection and timing of PEG insertion in the elderly

Large scale genome assemblies of Magnaporthe oryzae rice isolates from Italy

We report long-range sequencing of nine rice-infecting Magnaporthe oryzae isolates from different rice-growing regions of Italy using Oxford Nanopore Technology. We aquired chromosome-level genome assemblies, polished with Illumina short reads, and removed mitochondrial sequences to improve the quality of the assemblies.We provide the genome assemblies to the public with open access