Ocular in situ gel: An overview

Eye is the most sensitive organ of the body. Designing of ocular drug delivery system is the  most challenging field for pharmaceutical scientists as less than 5% of administered drug enters the eye due to the complicated anatomical structure of the eye, small absorptive surface and low transparency of the cornea, lipophilicity of corneal epithelium, pre corneal loss (due to nasolacrimal drainage), bonding of the drug with proteins contained in tear fluid, blinking, low capacity of conjunctival sac, that restricts the entry of drug molecule at the site of action and ultimately leads to poor ocular therapy. To improve ophthalmic drug bioavailability, there are considerable efforts directed towards newer drug delivery systems for ophthalmic administration. These novel drug delivery systems offer manifold advantages over conventional systems as they increase the efficiency of drug delivery by improving the release profile and also reduce drug toxicity. A lot of research going on in this area proves the fact that in situ gelling systems can be beneficial in the ocular drug delivery. In situ gel forming systems are drug delivery systems that are in solution form before administration in the body but once administered, undergo  in situ gelation, to form a gel triggered by external stimulus such as temperature, pH etc.  This review is to Specify a brief summary about in situ gels, various approaches for in situ gelling systems, different types of polymers used in in situ gels, their mechanisms of gel formation and evaluation of polymeric in situ gel. Keywords: in situ gel, polymers, Temperature induced in situ gel system, pH induced in situ gel system, Ion activated systems

Preparation, Characterization and Applications of Nanoemulsions: An Insight

Nanoemulsions are defined as isotropic, thermodynamically stable, transparent or translucent; dispersions of oil and water stabilized by surfactant molecules (forms an interfacial film) having the droplet size of 20-500nm. Ease of preparation and scale-up, stability and increased bioavailability are features of these formulations which have attracted the attention of researchers. Its basic principle lies in its ability to spontaneously generate fine o/w microemulsion under mild agitation following dilution with aqueous phases. These conditions mimic the digestive motility in the GIT necessary to provide the agitation required for In vivo self emulsification. Unlike emulsions, self-nanoemulsified drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) generates microemulsion with a narrow droplet size distribution of less than 50 nm due to which these systems have also been addressed as nanoemulsions. Nanoemulsions (NE) are lipidic nanoformulations with droplet diameter in nanometer range have established tremendous attention as drug delivery formulations for lipophilic drugs due to their capability to increase solubility, permeation across biological membranes as well as their therapeutic efficiency of lipid soluble drugs due to predictable size-distribution, high drug loading and stability under biological environment. However there is still relatively narrow insight regarding preparation, characterization and applications of nanoemulsions. This limitation unfolds the premise for current review article. In this review, we attempt to explore varying intricacies, methods of preparation, characteristics, and drug delivery applications of nanoemulsions to spike interest of those contemplating a foray in this field. Keywords: Nanoemulsions, Novel drug delivery system, increased bioavailability

Floating Oral In-Situ Gel: A Review

The drugs having a narrow absorption window in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) when administered by oral route are often limited by poor bioavailability due to incomplete drug release and short residence time at the site of absorption. Novel drug delivery systems in the form of gastroretentive systems such as floating systems, mucoadhesive, high-density, expandable have been developed as they provide controlled delivery of drugs with prolonged gastric residence time. Liquid orals are more prone to low bioavailability because they are eliminated quickly from the stomach since they are subjected to faster transit from the stomach/ duodenum. The problems of immediate release and short gastrointestinal residence of liquids are eliminated by formulating as oral in situ gels as they provide the best means to overcome these problems The in situ gel dosage form is a liquid before administration and after it comes in contact with gastric contents due to one or more mechanisms gets converted to gel which floats on gastric contents. This achieves increased residence as well as sustained release. This approach is useful for systemic as well as local effect of drugs administered. This review gives a brief idea about floating oral in-situ gel formation and research done by various scientists on a number of drugs and polymers. Keywords: Floating drug delivery, gastric retention time, In-situ gel

Advances in Nematode Identification: A Journey from Fundamentals to Evolutionary Aspects

Nematodes are non-segmented roundworms evenly distributed with various habitats ranging to approximately every ecological extremity. These are the least studied organisms despite being the most diversified group. Nematodes are the most critical equilibrium-maintaining factors, having implications on the yield and health of plants as well as well-being of animals. However, taxonomic knowledge about nematodes is scarce. As a result of the lack of precise taxonomic features, nematode taxonomy remains uncertain. Morphology-based identification has proved inefficacious in identifying and exploring the diversity of nematodes, as there are insufficient morphological variations. Different molecular and new evolving methodologies have been employed to augment morphology-based approaches and bypass these difficulties with varying effectiveness. These identification techniques vary from molecular-based targeting DNA or protein-based targeting amino acid sequences to methods for image processing. High-throughput approaches such as next-generation sequencing have also been added to this league. These alternative approaches have helped to classify nematodes and enhanced the base for increased diversity and phylogeny of nematodes, thus helping to formulate increasingly more nematode bases for use as model organisms to study different hot topics about human well-being. Here, we discuss all the methods of nematode identification as an essential shift from classical morphometric studies to the most important modern-day and molecular approaches for their identification. Classification varies from DNA/protein-based methods to the use of new emerging methods. However, the priority of the method relies on the quality, quantity, and availability of nematode resources and down-streaming applications. This paper reviews all currently offered methods for the detection of nematodes and known/unknown and cryptic or sibling species, emphasizing modern-day methods and budding molecular techniques

Effect of early tranexamic acid administration on mortality, hysterectomy, and other morbidities in women with post-partum haemorrhage (WOMAN): an international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background Post-partum haemorrhage is the leading cause of maternal death worldwide. Early administration of tranexamic acid reduces deaths due to bleeding in trauma patients. We aimed to assess the effects of early administration of tranexamic acid on death, hysterectomy, and other relevant outcomes in women with post-partum haemorrhage. Methods In this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, we recruited women aged 16 years and older with a clinical diagnosis of post-partum haemorrhage after a vaginal birth or caesarean section from 193 hospitals in 21 countries. We randomly assigned women to receive either 1 g intravenous tranexamic acid or matching placebo in addition to usual care. If bleeding continued after 30 min, or stopped and restarted within 24 h of the first dose, a second dose of 1 g of tranexamic acid or placebo could be given. Patients were assigned by selection of a numbered treatment pack from a box containing eight numbered packs that were identical apart from the pack number. Participants, care givers, and those assessing outcomes were masked to allocation. We originally planned to enrol 15 000 women with a composite primary endpoint of death from all-causes or hysterectomy within 42 days of giving birth. However, during the trial it became apparent that the decision to conduct a hysterectomy was often made at the same time as randomisation. Although tranexamic acid could influence the risk of death in these cases, it could not affect the risk of hysterectomy. We therefore increased the sample size from 15 000 to 20 000 women in order to estimate the effect of tranexamic acid on the risk of death from post-partum haemorrhage. All analyses were done on an intention-to-treat basis. This trial is registered with ISRCTN76912190 (Dec 8, 2008); ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00872469; and PACTR201007000192283. Findings Between March, 2010, and April, 2016, 20 060 women were enrolled and randomly assigned to receive tranexamic acid (n=10 051) or placebo (n=10 009), of whom 10 036 and 9985, respectively, were included in the analysis. Death due to bleeding was significantly reduced in women given tranexamic acid (155 [1·5%] of 10 036 patients vs 191 [1·9%] of 9985 in the placebo group, risk ratio [RR] 0·81, 95% CI 0·65–1·00; p=0·045), especially in women given treatment within 3 h of giving birth (89 [1·2%] in the tranexamic acid group vs 127 [1·7%] in the placebo group, RR 0·69, 95% CI 0·52–0·91; p=0·008). All other causes of death did not differ significantly by group. Hysterectomy was not reduced with tranexamic acid (358 [3·6%] patients in the tranexamic acid group vs 351 [3·5%] in the placebo group, RR 1·02, 95% CI 0·88–1·07; p=0·84). The composite primary endpoint of death from all causes or hysterectomy was not reduced with tranexamic acid (534 [5·3%] deaths or hysterectomies in the tranexamic acid group vs 546 [5·5%] in the placebo group, RR 0·97, 95% CI 0·87-1·09; p=0·65). Adverse events (including thromboembolic events) did not differ significantly in the tranexamic acid versus placebo group. Interpretation Tranexamic acid reduces death due to bleeding in women with post-partum haemorrhage with no adverse effects. When used as a treatment for postpartum haemorrhage, tranexamic acid should be given as soon as possible after bleeding onset. Funding London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Pfizer, UK Department of Health, Wellcome Trust, and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

<em>Salmonella</em> Infection and Pathogenesis

Salmonella genus represents most common food borne pathogens isolated from food producing animals and is responsible for causing zoonotic infections in humans and other animal species, including birds. As a result, Salmonella diseases are among the most common problems for the humans, animals, and food industry around the world. Despite rising attention about other pathogens, Salmonella continues to be the most prominent cause of food borne disease worldwide. Salmonella can be transferred to humans at any point along the farm-to-fork chain, most commonly through infected animal-derived foods such as poultry and poultry related products (eggs), pork, fish, and so on. Some Salmonella serotypes have been confined to a single serovar and are known as “host-restricted” while the others have a wide host spectral range and are known as “host-adapted” serotypes. Globally Salmonella infection causes huge mortality and the infection plays a huge role in immune response by evolving multiple mechanism to subvert immunity to its own benefit. Numerous infectivity markers and determinants have indeed been reported to play essential role in Salmonella pathogenesis to colonize its host by invading and avoiding the host’s intestinal shielding system

Advances in Nematode Identification: A Journey from Fundamentals to Evolutionary Aspects

Nematodes are non-segmented roundworms evenly distributed with various habitats ranging to approximately every ecological extremity. These are the least studied organisms despite being the most diversified group. Nematodes are the most critical equilibrium-maintaining factors, having implications on the yield and health of plants as well as well-being of animals. However, taxonomic knowledge about nematodes is scarce. As a result of the lack of precise taxonomic features, nematode taxonomy remains uncertain. Morphology-based identification has proved inefficacious in identifying and exploring the diversity of nematodes, as there are insufficient morphological variations. Different molecular and new evolving methodologies have been employed to augment morphology-based approaches and bypass these difficulties with varying effectiveness. These identification techniques vary from molecular-based targeting DNA or protein-based targeting amino acid sequences to methods for image processing. High-throughput approaches such as next-generation sequencing have also been added to this league. These alternative approaches have helped to classify nematodes and enhanced the base for increased diversity and phylogeny of nematodes, thus helping to formulate increasingly more nematode bases for use as model organisms to study different hot topics about human well-being. Here, we discuss all the methods of nematode identification as an essential shift from classical morphometric studies to the most important modern-day and molecular approaches for their identification. Classification varies from DNA/protein-based methods to the use of new emerging methods. However, the priority of the method relies on the quality, quantity, and availability of nematode resources and down-streaming applications. This paper reviews all currently offered methods for the detection of nematodes and known/unknown and cryptic or sibling species, emphasizing modern-day methods and budding molecular techniques

Nutritional and bioactive characteristics of buckwheat, and its potential for developing gluten-free products: An updated overview

In the present era, food scientists are concerned about exploiting functional crops with nutraceutical properties. Buckwheat is one of the functional pseudocereals with nutraceutical components used in the treatment of health-related diseases, malnutrition, and celiac diseases. As a preferred diet as a gluten-free product for celiac diseases, buckwheat is a good source of nutrients, bioactive components, phytochemicals, and antioxidants. The general characteristics and better nutritional profile of buckwheat than other cereal family crops were highlighted by previous investigations. In buckwheats, bioactive components like peptides, flavonoids, phenolic acids, d-fagomine, fagopyritols, and fagopyrins are posing significant health benefits. This study highlights the current knowledge about buckwheat and its characteristics, nutritional constituents, bioactive components, and their potential for developing gluten-free products to target celiac people (1.4% of the world population) and other health-related diseases