Enhanced Transgene Expression from Recombinant Single-Stranded D-Sequence-Substituted Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors in Human Cell Lines In Vitro and in Murine Hepatocytes In Vivo

ABSTRACT We have previously reported that the removal of a 20-nucleotide sequence, termed the D sequence, from both ends of the inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) in the adeno-associated virus serotype 2 (AAV2) genome significantly impairs rescue, replication, and encapsidation of the viral genomes (X. S. Wang, S. Ponnazhagan, and A. Srivastava, J Mol Biol 250:573–580, 1995; X. S. Wang, S. Ponnazhagan, and A. Srivastava, J Virol 70:1668–1677, 1996). Here we describe that replacement of only one D sequence in either ITR restores each of these functions, but DNA strands of only single polarity are encapsidated in mature progeny virions. Since most commonly used recombinant AAV vectors contain a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), which is transcriptionally inactive, efficient transgene expression from AAV vectors is dependent upon viral second-strand DNA synthesis. We have also identified a transcription suppressor sequence in one of the D sequences, which shares homology with the binding site for the cellular NF-κB-repressing factor (NRF). The removal of this D sequence from, and replacement with a sequence containing putative binding sites for transcription factors in, single-stranded AAV (ssAAV) vectors significantly augments transgene expression both in human cell lines in vitro and in murine hepatocytes in vivo . The development of these genome-modified ssAAV vectors has implications not only for the basic biology of AAV but also for the optimal use of these vectors in human gene therapy. IMPORTANCE The results of the studies described here not only have provided novel insights into some of the critical steps in the life cycle of a human virus, the adeno-associated virus (AAV), that causes no known disease but have also led to the development of novel recombinant AAV vectors which are more efficient in allowing increased levels of gene expression. Thus, these studies have significant implications for the potential use of these novel AAV vectors in human gene therapy

The Effect of DNA-Dependent Protein Kinase on Adeno-Associated Virus Replication

BACKGROUND: DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) is a DNA repair enzyme and plays an important role in determining the molecular fate of the rAAV genome. However, the effect this cellular enzyme on rAAV DNA replication remains elusive. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In the present study, we characterized the roles of DNA-PK on recombinant adeno-associated virus DNA replication. Inhibition of DNA-PK by a DNA-PK inhibitor or siRNA targeting DNA-PKcs significantly decreased replication of AAV in MO59K and 293 cells. Southern blot analysis showed that replicated rAAV DNA formed head-to-head or tail-to-tail junctions. The head-to-tail junction was low or undetectable suggesting AAV-ITR self-priming is the major mechanism for rAAV DNA replication. In an in vitro replication assay, anti-Ku80 antibody strongly inhibited rAAV replication, while anti-Ku70 antibody moderately decreased rAAV replication. Similarly, when Ku heterodimer (Ku70/80) was depleted, less replicated rAAV DNA were detected. Finally, we showed that AAV-ITRs directly interacted with Ku proteins. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Collectively, our results showed that that DNA-PK enhances rAAV replication through the interaction of Ku proteins and AAV-ITRs

Integration Preferences of Wildtype AAV-2 for Consensus Rep-Binding Sites at Numerous Loci in the Human Genome

Adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV) is known to establish latency by preferential integration in human chromosome 19q13.42. The AAV non-structural protein Rep appears to target a site called AAVS1 by simultaneously binding to Rep-binding sites (RBS) present on the AAV genome and within AAVS1. In the absence of Rep, as is the case with AAV vectors, chromosomal integration is rare and random. For a genome-wide survey of wildtype AAV integration a linker-selection-mediated (LSM)-PCR strategy was designed to retrieve AAV-chromosomal junctions. DNA sequence determination revealed wildtype AAV integration sites scattered over the entire human genome. The bioinformatic analysis of these integration sites compared to those of rep-deficient AAV vectors revealed a highly significant overrepresentation of integration events near to consensus RBS. Integration hotspots included AAVS1 with 10% of total events. Novel hotspots near consensus RBS were identified on chromosome 5p13.3 denoted AAVS2 and on chromsome 3p24.3 denoted AAVS3. AAVS2 displayed seven independent junctions clustered within only 14 bp of a consensus RBS which proved to bind Rep in vitro similar to the RBS in AAVS3. Expression of Rep in the presence of rep-deficient AAV vectors shifted targeting preferences from random integration back to the neighbourhood of consensus RBS at hotspots and numerous additional sites in the human genome. In summary, targeted AAV integration is not as specific for AAVS1 as previously assumed. Rather, Rep targets AAV to integrate into open chromatin regions in the reach of various, consensus RBS homologues in the human genome

Adeno-Associated Virus Type 2 (AAV2) Capsid-Specific Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes Eliminate Only Vector-Transduced Cells Coexpressing the AAV2 Capsid In Vivo▿

A recent clinical trial has suggested that recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vector transduction in humans induces a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response against the AAV2 capsid. To directly address the ability of AAV capsid-specific CTLs to eliminate rAAV-transduced cells in vitro and in vivo in mice, we first demonstrated that AAV2 capsid-specific CTLs could be induced by dendritic cells with endogenous AAV2 capsid expression or pulsed with AAV2 vectors. These CTLs were able to kill a cell line stable for capsid expression in vitro and also in a mouse tumor xenograft model in vivo. Parent colon carcinoma (CT26) cells transduced with a large amount of AAV2 vectors in vitro were also destroyed by these CTLs. To determine the effect of CTLs on the elimination of target cells transduced by AAV2 vectors in vivo, we carried out adoptive transfer experiments. CTLs eliminated liver cells with endogenous AAV2 capsid expression but not liver cells transduced by AAV2 vectors, regardless of the reporter genes. Similar results were obtained for rAAV2 transduction in muscle. Our data strongly suggest that AAV vector-transduced cells are rarely eliminated by AAV2 capsid-specific CTLs in vivo, even though the AAV capsid can induce a CTL response. In conclusion, AAV capsid-specific CTLs do not appear to play a role in elimination of rAAV-transduced cells in a mouse model. In addition, our data suggest that the mouse model may not mimic the immune response noted in humans and additional modification to AAV vectors may be required for further study in order to elicit a similar cellular immune response

Morphology and the physical and thermal properties of thermoplastic polyurethane reinforced with thermally reduced graphene oxide

In this study, thermally reduced graphene oxide (TRG)-containing polyurethane nanocomposites were obtained by the extrusion method. The content of TRG incorporated into polyurethane elastomer systems equaled 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 wt%. The morphology, static and dynamic mechanical properties, and thermal stability of the modified materials were investigated. The application of TRG resulted in a visible increase in material stiffness as confirmed by the measurements of complex compression modulus (E′) and glass transition temperature (Tg). The Tg increased with increasing content of nanofiller in the thermoplastic system. The addition of thermally reduced graphene oxide had a slight effect on thermal stability of the obtained materials. The incorporation of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 wt% of TRG into a system resulted in increased char residues compared to unmodified PU elastomer. Also, this study demonstrated that after exceeding a specific amount of TRG, the physicomechanical properties of modified materials start to deteriorate