Photosynthetic responses in Phaeocystis antarctica towards varying light and iron conditions

The effects of iron limitation on photoacclimation to a dynamic light regime were studied in Phaeocystis antarctica. Batch cultures were grown under a sinusoidal light regime, mimicking vertical mixing, under both iron-sufficient and -limiting conditions. Iron-replete cells responded to changes in light intensity by rapid xanthophyll cycling. Maximum irradiance coincided with maximum ratios of diatoxanthin/diadinoxanthin (dt/dd). The maximum quantum yield of photosynthesis (F-v /F-m) was negatively related to both irradiance and dt/dd. Full recovery of F-v /F-m by the end of the light period suggested successful photoacclimation. Iron-limited cells displayed characteristics of high light acclimation. The ratio of xanthophyll pigments to chlorophyll a was three times higher compared to iron-replete cells. Down-regulation of photosynthetic activity was moderated. It is argued that under iron limitation cells maintain a permanent state of high energy quenching to avoid photoinhibition during exposure to high irradiance. Iron-limited cells could maintain a high growth potential due to an increased absorption capacity as recorded by in vivo absorption, which balanced a decrease in F-v/F-m . The increase in the chlorophyll a-specific absorption cross section was related to an increase in carotenoid pigments and a reduction in the package effect. These experiments show that P. antarctica can acclimate successfully to conditions as they prevail in the Antarctic ocean, which may explain the success of this species

Methods for biogeochemical studies of sea ice: The state of the art, caveats, and recommendations

AbstractOver the past two decades, with recognition that the ocean’s sea-ice cover is neither insensitive to climate change nor a barrier to light and matter, research in sea-ice biogeochemistry has accelerated significantly, bringing together a multi-disciplinary community from a variety of fields. This disciplinary diversity has contributed a wide range of methodological techniques and approaches to sea-ice studies, complicating comparisons of the results and the development of conceptual and numerical models to describe the important biogeochemical processes occurring in sea ice. Almost all chemical elements, compounds, and biogeochemical processes relevant to Earth system science are measured in sea ice, with published methods available for determining biomass, pigments, net community production, primary production, bacterial activity, macronutrients, numerous natural and anthropogenic organic compounds, trace elements, reactive and inert gases, sulfur species, the carbon dioxide system parameters, stable isotopes, and water-ice-atmosphere fluxes of gases, liquids, and solids. For most of these measurements, multiple sampling and processing techniques are available, but to date there has been little intercomparison or intercalibration between methods. In addition, researchers collect different types of ancillary data and document their samples differently, further confounding comparisons between studies. These problems are compounded by the heterogeneity of sea ice, in which even adjacent cores can have dramatically different biogeochemical compositions. We recommend that, in future investigations, researchers design their programs based on nested sampling patterns, collect a core suite of ancillary measurements, and employ a standard approach for sample identification and documentation. In addition, intercalibration exercises are most critically needed for measurements of biomass, primary production, nutrients, dissolved and particulate organic matter (including exopolymers), the CO2 system, air-ice gas fluxes, and aerosol production. We also encourage the development of in situ probes robust enough for long-term deployment in sea ice, particularly for biological parameters, the CO2 system, and other gases.This manuscript is a product of SCOR working group 140 on Biogeochemical Exchange Processes at Sea-Ice Interfaces (BEPSII); we thank BEPSII chairs Jacqueline Stefels and Nadja Steiner and SCOR executive director Ed Urban for their practical and moral support of this endeavour. This manuscript was first conceived at an EU COST Action 735 workshop held in Amsterdam in April 2011; in addition to COST 735, we thank the other participants of the “methods” break-out group at that meeting, namely Gerhard Dieckmann, Christoph Garbe, and Claire Hughes. Our editors, Steve Ackley and Jody Deming, and our reviewers, Mats Granskog and two anonymous reviewers, provided invaluable advice that not only identified and helped fill in some gaps, but also suggested additional ways to make what is by nature a rather dry subject (methods) at least a bit more interesting and accessible. We also thank the librarians at the Institute of Ocean Sciences for their unflagging efforts to track down the more obscure references we required. Finally, and most importantly, we thank everyone who has braved the unknown and made the new measurements that have helped build sea-ice biogeochemistry into the robust and exciting field it has become.This is the final published article, originally published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 3: 000038, doi: 10.12952/journal.elementa.00003

Using Satellite Tracking to Optimize Protection of Long-Lived Marine Species: Olive Ridley Sea Turtle Conservation in Central Africa

Tractable conservation measures for long-lived species require the intersection between protection of biologically relevant life history stages and a socioeconomically feasible setting. To protect breeding adults, we require knowledge of animal movements, how movement relates to political boundaries, and our confidence in spatial analyses of movement. We used satellite tracking and a switching state-space model to determine the internesting movements of olive ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) (n = 18) in Central Africa during two breeding seasons (2007-08, 2008-09). These movements were analyzed in relation to current park boundaries and a proposed transboundary park between Gabon and the Republic of Congo, both created to reduce unintentional bycatch of sea turtles in marine fisheries. We additionally determined confidence intervals surrounding home range calculations. Turtles remained largely within a 30 km radius from the original nesting site before departing for distant foraging grounds. Only 44.6 percent of high-density areas were found within the current park but the proposed transboundary park would incorporate 97.6 percent of high-density areas. Though tagged individuals originated in Gabon, turtles were found in Congolese waters during greater than half of the internesting period (53.7 percent), highlighting the need for international cooperation and offering scientific support for a proposed transboundary park. This is the first comprehensive study on the internesting movements of solitary nesting olive ridley sea turtles, and it suggests the opportunity for tractable conservation measures for female nesting olive ridleys at this and other solitary nesting sites around the world. We draw from our results a framework for cost-effective protection of long-lived species using satellite telemetry as a primary tool

Effects of iron and light stress on the biochemical composition of Antarctic Phaeocystis sp. (Prymnesiophyceae). I. Intracellular DMSP concentrations

Iron is essential for phytoplankton growth, as it is involved in many metabolic processes. It controls photosynthesis as well as many enzymatic processes. As such, iron affects the cell's energy supply and contributes to the assimilation of carbon and nitrogen. To determine whether iron limitation would result in energy stress or induced nitrogen deficiency, an Antarctic Phaeocystis sp. (Prymnesiophyceae) strain was studied for its biochemical composition, with the main emphasis on intracellular production of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP). DMSP is suggested to replace nitrogen containing solutes under conditions of nitrogen deficiency. Batch cultures of Antarctic Phaeocystis sp. were grown under iron-rich and iron-poor conditions and simultaneously subjected to high and low light intensities. Iron depletion induced chlorosis and suppressed growth rates as well as the maximum yield of the cultures; these effects were reinforced by low light intensities. Cell volumes were strongly reduced under iron-limited conditions. However, this reduction in cell volume was accompanied by a reduced DMSP content entry in cultures experiencing low light intensities. Under high light conditions, no reduction of DMSP was observed; hence, intracellular DMSP concentrations increased. These observations are discussed relative to carbon and nitrogen metabolism and the biosynthetic pathway of DMSP. It is argued that under high light, low iron conditions, the cells were bordering on nitrogen deficiency induced by iron limitation, whereas under low light, low iron conditions, the cells were energy limited resulting in overall suppressed metabolic rates. Between treatments, DMSP to chlorophyll-a ratios varied by a factor of 5, demonstrating the dependence of this parameter on the physiological state of the cell

Effects of iron and light stress on the biochemical composition of Antarctic Phaeocystis sp. (Prymnesiophyceae). II. Pigment composition

A strain of Phaeocystis sp., isolated in the Southern Ocean, was cultured under iron- and light-limited conditions. The cellular content of chlorophyll a and accessory light-harvesting (LH) pigments increased under low light intensities. Iron limitation resulted in a decrease of all light-harvesting pigments. However, this decrease was greatly compensated for by a decrease in cell volume. Cellular concentrations of the LH pigments were similar for both iron-replete and iron-deplete cells. Concentrations of chlorophyll a were affected only under low light conditions, wherein concentrations were suppressed by iron limitation. Ratios of the LH pigments to chlorophyll a were highest for iron-deplete cells under both light conditions. The photoprotective cycle of diato/diadinoxanthin was activated under high light conditions, and enhanced by iron stress. The ratio of diatoxanthin to diadinoxanthin was highest under high light, low iron conditions. Iron limitation induced synthesis of 19'-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin and 19'-butanoyloxyfucoxanthin at the cost of fucoxanthin. Fucoxanthin formed the main carotenoid in iron-replete Phaeocystis cells, whereas for iron-deplete cells 19'-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin was found to be the main carotenoid. This shift in carotenoid composition is of importance in view of the marker function of both pigments, especially in areas where Phaeocystis sp. and diatoms occur simultaneously. A hypothesis is presented to explain the transformation of fucoxanthin into 19'-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin and 19'-butanoyloxyfucoxanthin, referring to their roles as a light-harvesting pigment

Enhanced carbohydrate production by Southern Ocean phytoplankton in response to in situ iron fertilization

Storage carbohydrates (e.g., water-extractable β-1,3-D-glucan in diatoms) are of key importance for phytoplankton growth in a variable light climate, because they facilitate continued growth of the cells in darkness by providing energy and carbon skeletons for protein synthesis. Here, we tested the hypothesis that synthesis of storage carbohydrates by phytoplankton in the Southern Ocean is reduced by low iron and light availability. During the EisenEx/CARbon dioxide Uptake by the Southern Ocean (CARUSO) in situ iron enrichment experiment in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean in November 2000, we studied the dynamics of water-extractable carbohydrates in the particulate fraction over the period of 3 weeks following the iron release. The areal amount (integral between 0- and 100-m depth) of carbohydrates increased from 1400 to 2300 mg m-2 inside the iron-enriched patch, while remaining roughly constant in the surrounding waters. Most of the increase inside the patch was associated with the fraction of large (>10 µm) phytoplankton cells, consistent with the shift in the community structure towards larger diatoms. Deck incubations at 60% of the ambient irradiance revealed that the diurnal chlorophyll a (Chl a)-specific production rates of water-extractable polysaccharides were significantly higher for "in-patch" than for "out-patch" samples (0.5 vs. 0.3 µg C [µg Chl a]-1 h-1, respectively). Together with the higher photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm), this indicates enhanced photosynthetic performance in response to iron fertilization. In addition, the nocturnal polysaccharide consumption rates were also enhanced by iron release, causing a striking increase in the diel dynamics of polysaccharide concentration. An iron-stimulated increase in diel dynamics was also observed in the fluorescence and size of pico- and nanophytoplankton cells (measured by flow cytometry) and is indicative of enhanced phytoplankton growth. Diurnal polysaccharide production by phytoplankton inside the patch was light-limited when they were incubated at intensities below ca. 200 µmol m-2 s-1 (daytime average). These irradiance levels correspond to those at 20- to 30-m depth in situ, whereas the upper mixed layer was frequently several-fold deeper due to storms. Therefore, these first measurements of phytoplankton carbohydrates during an in situ iron release experiment have revealed that both light and iron availability are the key factors controlling the synthesis of storage carbohydrates in phytoplankton and, hence, the development of diatom blooms in the Southern Ocean.