Correlated response in body condition and energy mobilisation in rabbits selected for litter size variability

[EN] A divergent selection experiment on litter size variability (high and low lines) was performed in rabbits over seven generations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the correlated responses to selection in body condition and fat reserves mobilisation. Litter size variability was estimated as phenotypic variance of litter size within female after correcting for the year-season and the parity-lactation status effects. A total of 226 females were used in this study, of which 158 females were used to measure body condition and energy mobilisation. Body condition was measured as BW and perirenal fat thickness. Females were stimulated with the adrenergic isoproterenol. Mobilisation capacity of fat reserves was measured by the lipolytic potential, defined as the increment in non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) levels from basal concentration until adrenergic stimulation at mating, delivery and 10 days after delivery of the second reproductive cycle. Females were classified as survivor or non-survivor when they were culled for sanitary reasons or died before the third kindling. Data were analysed using Bayesian methodology. Survivor females presented higher BW than the non-survivor females at delivery (238 g, P=1.00) and 10 days after delivery (276 g, P=1.00). They also showed higher perirenal fat thickness at 10 days after delivery (0.62 mm, P=1.00). At delivery, basal NEFA levels was lower in survivor than non-survivor females (-0.18 mmol/l, P=1.00), but their lipolytic potential ( increment NEFA) was higher (0.08 mmol/l, P=0.94). Body weight was similar between lines in survivor females. Perirenal fat thickness was lower in the high line than in the low line at delivery (-0.23 mm, P=0.90) and 10 days after delivery (-0.28 mm, P=0.92). The high line exhibited higher NEFA (0.10 mmol/l, P=0.93) and lower increment NEFA (-0.08 mmol/l, P=0.92) than the low line at delivery. The low line showed a favourable correlated response to selection on body condition and fat reserves mobilisation. In conclusion, the low line selected for litter size variability seems to adapt better to adverse conditions, as it has a greater capacity to mobilise energy reserves at delivery than the high line. Females that adequately manage their body reserves and perform energy mobilisation correctly have a lower risk of dying or being culled.This study is supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO), projects AGL2014-55921-C2, P1 and P2.Garcia, M.; Blasco Mateu, A.; Garcia, M.; Argente, M. (2019). Correlated response in body condition and energy mobilisation in rabbits selected for litter size variability. Animal. 13(4):784-789. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731118002203S784789134Webster Marketon, J. I., & Glaser, R. (2008). Stress hormones and immune function. Cellular Immunology, 252(1-2), 16-26. doi:10.1016/j.cellimm.2007.09.006Theilgaard, P., Sánchez, J. P., Pascual, J. J., Friggens, N. C., & Baselga, M. (2006). Effect of body fatness and selection for prolificacy on survival of rabbit does assessed using a cryopreserved control population. Livestock Science, 103(1-2), 65-73. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2006.01.007Theilgaard, P., Baselga, M., Blas, E., Friggens, N. C., Cervera, C., & Pascual, J. J. (2009). Differences in productive robustness in rabbits selected for reproductive longevity or litter size. animal, 3(5), 637-646. doi:10.1017/s1751731109003838Roche, J. R., Friggens, N. C., Kay, J. K., Fisher, M. W., Stafford, K. J., & Berry, D. P. (2009). Invited review: Body condition score and its association with dairy cow productivity, health, and welfare. Journal of Dairy Science, 92(12), 5769-5801. doi:10.3168/jds.2009-2431PILORZ, V., JACKEL, M., KNUDSEN, K., & TRILLMICH, F. (2005). The cost of a specific immune response in young guinea pigs. Physiology & Behavior, 85(2), 205-211. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.04.008Pascual, J. J., Castella, F., Cervera, C., Blas, E., & Fernández-Carmona, J. (2000). The use of ultrasound measurement of perirenal fat thickness to estimate changes in body condition of young female rabbits. Animal Science, 70(3), 435-442. doi:10.1017/s135772980005178xMartínez-Paredes, E., Ródenas, L., Martínez-Vallespín, B., Cervera, C., Blas, E., Brecchia, G., … Pascual, J. J. (2012). Effects of feeding programme on the performance and energy balance of nulliparous rabbit does. animal, 6(7), 1086-1095. doi:10.1017/s1751731111002643Gellrich, K., Sigl, T., Meyer, H. H. D., & Wiedemann, S. (2015). Cortisol levels in skimmed milk during the first 22 weeks of lactation and response to short-term metabolic stress and lameness in dairy cows. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 6(1). doi:10.1186/s40104-015-0035-yFortun-Lamothe, L. (2006). Energy balance and reproductive performance in rabbit does. Animal Reproduction Science, 93(1-2), 1-15. doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2005.06.009Feugier, A., & Fortun-Lamothe, L. (2006). Extensive reproductive rhythm and early weaning improve body condition and fertility of rabbit does. Animal Research, 55(5), 459-470. doi:10.1051/animres:2006025Blasco, A., Martínez-Álvaro, M., García, M.-L., Ibáñez-Escriche, N., & Argente, M.-J. (2017). Selection for environmental variance of litter size in rabbits. Genetics Selection Evolution, 49(1). doi:10.1186/s12711-017-0323-4Friggens, N. C. (2003). Body lipid reserves and the reproductive cycle: towards a better understanding. Livestock Production Science, 83(2-3), 219-236. doi:10.1016/s0301-6226(03)00111-8Johnson, R. . (1998). Immune and endocrine regulation of food intake in sick animals. Domestic Animal Endocrinology, 15(5), 309-319. doi:10.1016/s0739-7240(98)00031-9Bareille, N., Beaudeau, F., Billon, S., Robert, A., & Faverdin, P. (2003). Effects of health disorders on feed intake and milk production in dairy cows. Livestock Production Science, 83(1), 53-62. doi:10.1016/s0301-6226(03)00040-xBlasco A , Martínez-Álvaro M , Garcia ML , Capcarova M , Zbynovska K , Petruska P , Ibáñez-Escriche N and Argente MJ 2018. Selection for genetic environmental sensitivity of litter size changes resilience in rabbits. In 11th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, 11–16 February 2018, Auckland, New Zealand.Fortun, L., Prunier, A., Étienne, M., & Lebas, F. (1994). Influence of the nutritional deficit of foetal survival and growth and plasma metabolites in rabbit does. Reproduction Nutrition Development, 34(3), 201-211. doi:10.1051/rnd:19940303Rosell, J. M., & de la Fuente, L. F. (2016). Causes of mortality in breeding rabbits. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 127, 56-63. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.03.014Savietto, D., Cervera, C., Blas, E., Baselga, M., Larsen, T., Friggens, N. C., & Pascual, J. J. (2013). Environmental sensitivity differs between rabbit lines selected for reproductive intensity and longevity. animal, 7(12), 1969-1977. doi:10.1017/s175173111300178xGarcía ML , Argente MJ , Muelas R , Birlanga V and Blasco A 2012. Effect of divergent selection for residual variance of litter size on health status and welfare. In Proceedings of the 10th World Rabbit Congress, 3–6 September 2012, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, pp. 103–106.Chilliard, Y. (1993). Dietary Fat and Adipose Tissue Metabolism in Ruminants, Pigs, and Rodents: A Review. Journal of Dairy Science, 76(12), 3897-3931. doi:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(93)77730-9Blasco, A. (2017). Bayesian Data Analysis for Animal Scientists. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54274-4Sorensen, D., & Gianola, D. (2002). Likelihood, Bayesian, and MCMC Methods in Quantitative Genetics. Statistics for Biology and Health. doi:10.1007/b98952Rosell, J. M., & de la Fuente, L. F. (2009). Culling and mortality in breeding rabbits. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 88(2), 120-127. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2008.08.003Blache, D., Terlouw, C., & Maloney, S. K. (s. f.). Physiology. Animal welfare, 155-182. doi:10.1079/9781845936594.0155Amat, J. A., Aguilera, E., & Visser, G. H. (2006). Energetic and developmental costs of mounting an immune response in greenfinches (Carduelis chloris). Ecological Research, 22(2), 282-287. doi:10.1007/s11284-006-0022-

Embryologic changes in rabbit lines selected for litter size variability

[EN] A divergent selection experiment on litter size variability was carried out. Correlated response in early embryo survival, embryonic development, size of embryos, and size of embryonic coats after four generations of selection was estimated. A total of 429 embryos from 51 high-line females and 648 embryos from 80 low-line females were used in the experiment. The traits studied were percentage of normal embryos, embryo diameter, zona pellucida thickness, and mucin coat thickness. Traits were measured at 24, 48, and 72 hours postcoitum (hpc); mucin coat thickness was only measured at 48 and 72 hpc. The embryos were classified as zygotes or two-cell embryos at 24 hpc; 16-cell embryos or early morulae at 48 hpc; and early morulae, compacted morulae, or blastocyst at 72 hpc. At 24 hpc, the percentage of normal embryos in the high line was lower than in the low line (-2.5%), and embryos in the high line showed 10% higher zona pellucida thickness than those of the low line. No differences in percentage of zygotes or two-cell embryos were found. At 48 hpc, the high-line embryos were less developed, with a higher percentage of 16-cell embryos (23.4%) and a lower percentage of early morulae (-23.4%). At 72 hpc, high-line embryos continued to be less developed, showing higher percentages of early morulae and compact morulae and lower percentages of blastocyst (-1.8%). No differences in embryo diameter or mucin coat thickness were found at any time. In conclusion, selection for litter size variability has consequences on early embryonic survival and development, with embryos presenting a lower state of development and a lower percentage of normal embryos in the line selected for higher variability. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.This experiment was supported by projects of National Research Plan AGL2011-29831-C03-02 and GVPRE/2008/145.Garcia, M.; Blasco Mateu, A.; Argente, M. (2016). Embryologic changes in rabbit lines selected for litter size variability. Theriogenology. 86(5):1247-1250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.04.065S1247125086

Fabrication and Characterization of Multiband Solar Cells Based on Highly Mismatched Alloys

Multiband solar cells are one type of third generation photovoltaic devices in which an increase of the power conversion efficiency is achieved through the absorption of low energy photons while preserving a large band gap that determines the open circuit voltage. The ability to absorb photons from different parts of the solar spectrum originates from the presence of an intermediate energy band located within the band gap of the material. This intermediate band, acting as a stepping stone allows the absorption of low energy photons to transfer electrons from the valence band to the conduction band by a sequential two photons absorption process. It has been demonstrated that highly mismatched alloys offer a potential to be used as a model material system for practical realization of multiband solar cells. Dilute nitride GaAs1-xNx highly mismatched alloy with low mole fraction of N is a prototypical multiband semiconductor with a well-defined intermediate band. Currently, we are using chemical beam epitaxy to synthesize dilute nitride highly mismatched alloys. The materials are characterized by a variety of structural and optical methods to optimize their properties for multiband photovoltaic devices

Centennial-scale vegetation and North Atlantic Oscillation changes during the Late Holocene in the southern Iberia

High-reso CE to lution pollen analysis, charcoal, non-pollen palynomorphs and magnetic susceptibility have been analyzed in the sediment record of a peat bog in Sierra Nevada in southern Iberia. The study of these proxies provided the reconstruction of vegetation, climate, fire and human activity of the last ∼4500 cal yr BP. A progressive trend towards aridification during the late Holocene is observed in this record. This trend is interrupted by millennial- and centennial-scale variability of relatively more humid and arid periods. Arid conditions are recorded between ∼4000 and 3100 cal yr BP, being characterized by a decline in arboreal pollen and with a spike in magnetic susceptibility. This is followed by a relatively humid period from ∼3100 to 1600 cal yr BP, coinciding partially with the Iberian-Roman Humid Period, and is indicated by the increase of Pinus and the decrease in xerophytic taxa. The last 1500 cal yr BP are characterized by several centennial-scale climatic oscillations. Generally arid conditions from ∼450 to 1300 CE, depicted by a decrease in Pinus and an increase in Artemisia, comprise the Dark Ages and the Medieval Climate Anomaly. Since ∼ 1300 to 1850 CE pronounced oscillations occur between relatively humid and arid conditions. Four periods depicted by relatively higher Pinus coinciding with the beginning and end of the Little Ice Age are interrupted by three arid events characterized by an increase in Artemisia. These alternating arid and humid shifts could be explained by centennial-scale changes in the North Atlantic Oscillation and solar activity

Baryonic Resonances from Baryon Decuplet-Meson Octet Interactions and the Exotic Resonance S=1, I=1, J^P=3/2-

Using the lowest order chiral Lagrangian we study s-wave interactions of the baryon decuplet with the octet of pseudoscalar mesons. We find two bound states in the flavour SU(3) limit corresponding to the octet and decuplet representations. These are found to split into eight different trajectories in the complex plane when the SU(3) symmetry is broken gradually. Finally, we are able to provide a reasonable description for a good number of 4-star 3/2- resonances listed by the Particle Data Group. In particular, the Xi(1820), the Lambda(1520) and the Sigma(1670) states are well reproduced. We predict a few other resonances and also evaluate the couplings of the observed resonances to the various channels from the residues at the poles of the scattering matrix from where partial decay widths into different channels can be evaluated.Comment: Talk given at 10th International Conference on the Structure of Baryons (Baryon 2004) at Palaiseau (France), 25-29 October 200

Effects of genotype, salt content and calibre on quality of traditional dry-fermented sausages

The increasing demand for traditional food products is concomitant with higher nutritional and health concerns. The effect of genotype, salt content and calibre on physicochemical, microbiological and texture parameters, along with sensory acceptability, was studied on low-salt Portuguese traditional dry-fermented sausages. A few significant differences were found in different microbial counts between pork genotypes' sausages. Lauric and stearic fatty acids showed significantly higher values for hybrid genotype products, while contents in gadoleic, heneicosanoic, linoleic and linolenic acids were higher in Alentejano pork sausages. Unexpectedly, there are no significant differences between genotypes for oleic acid, although lower contents were found in the Alentejano genotype.Texture Profile Analysis revealed significant differences in hardness, adhesiveness, resilience and chewiness between genotypes, with Alentejano pork sausages being softer and thus easier to chew. Salt reduction does not negatively affect the quality and acceptability of sausages. Furthermore, the use of hybrid genotype meat does not mischaracterise a product traditionally made exclusively of Alentejano pig meat

Impact of a 25% salt reduction on the microbial load, texture and sensory attributes of a traditional dry-cured sausage.

Catalão is a Portuguese dry-cured traditional sausage, highly appreciated for its distinctive sensory properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a 25% salt reduction on Catalão manufactured with either purebred Alentejano (Al) or crossbred Iberian × Duroc (IDr) pork meat, on its physicochemical and microbiological stability, texture parameters, and sensory attributes. No significant effect of salt reduction or genotype was observed for pH, aW, and microbiological parameters. PUFA content was significantly higher for Al Catalão, particularly due to the content in linoleic and linolenic fatty acids. IDr 3% NaCl samples had the highest mean n6/n3 PUFA ratio, and the highest mean values for the atherogenicity and thrombogenicity indices, showing that both genotype and salt content influence these nutritional indices. Texture profile of Catalão was significantly influenced by salt content and genotype. Al samples were less adhesive, cohesive, and easier to chew. Low-salt Catalão was harder, more adhesive, and less cohesive, with lower resilience and higher chewiness values. Regarding sensory attributes, salt content influenced the product aroma, with reduced-salt sausages being evaluated as significantly less aromatic. Overall, a 25% salt reduction did not have a significant impact on the quality, stability, and sensory evaluation of Catalão

Modelling actin polymerization: the effect on confined cell migration

The aim of this work is to model cell motility under conditions of mechanical confinement. This cell migration mode may occur in extravasation of tumour and neutrophil-like cells. Cell migration is the result of the complex action of different forces exerted by the interplay between myosin contractility forces and actin processes. Here, we propose and implement a finite element model of the confined migration of a single cell. In this model, we consider the effects of actin and myosin in cell motility. Both filament and globular actin are modelled. We model the cell considering cytoplasm and nucleus with different mechanical properties. The migration speed in the simulation is around 0.1 µm/min, which is in agreement with existing literature. From our simulation, we observe that the nucleus size has an important role in cell migration inside the channel. In the simulation the cell moves further when the nucleus is smaller. However, this speed is less sensitive to nucleus stiffness. The results show that the cell displacement is lower when the nucleus is stiffer. The degree of adhesion between the channel walls and the cell is also very important in confined migration. We observe an increment of cell velocity when the friction coefficient is higher

Litter Survival Differences between Divergently Selected Lines for Environmental Sensitivity in Rabbits

[EN] Simple Summary Two rabbit lines are divergently selected for increasing or decreasing the variability of litter size at birth. Decreasing the litter size variability produces more resilient females with less sensitivity to diseases, being an indirect selection way to improve environmental sensitivity. The kits' survival rate at weaning was higher in the homogeneous line. Moreover, this line led to a greater uniformity of the kits' weight at weaning, although the weight variability at birth was higher, which could be due to a higher lactation capacity of the homogeneous line. A divergent selection experiment on environmental sensitivity was performed in rabbits. The aim was to estimate the correlated response in kit weight and survival, litter weight, and weight distance from birth to weaning. The weight distance was calculated as the absolute value of the differences between the individual value and the mean value of its litter. The relationship between the probability of survival at 4 d of age, and the weight at birth, was studied. Environmental sensitivity was measured as litter size variability. A total of 2484 kits from 127 does from the low line, and 1916 kits of 114 does from the high line of the 12th generation were weighed. Both of the lines showed similar individual and litter weights at birth and weaning, and a similar survival rate at birth, and at 4 d of age. The survival rate at weaning was higher in the low line (0.67 and 0.62; P = 0.93). The weight distance was higher at birth, but lower at weaning in the low line (47.8 g and 54.1 g; P = 0.98). When the weight at birth was high, the kits had a higher survival rate. In conclusion, selection for environmental sensitivity showed a correlated response in the kits' survival, and in the homogeneity of litter weight at weaning.This study is supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) with the Projects AGL2017-86083, C2-1-P and C2-2-P.Agea, I.; Garcia, M.; Blasco Mateu, A.; Argente, M. (2019). Litter Survival Differences between Divergently Selected Lines for Environmental Sensitivity in Rabbits. Animals. 9(9):1-9. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9090603S1999Garcı́a, M. L., & Baselga, M. (2002). Estimation of genetic response to selection in litter size of rabbits using a cryopreserved control population. Livestock Production Science, 74(1), 45-53. doi:10.1016/s0301-6226(01)00280-9Sánchez, J. P., Theilgaard, P., Mínguez, C., & Baselga, M. (2008). Constitution and evaluation of a long-lived productive rabbit line1. Journal of Animal Science, 86(3), 515-525. doi:10.2527/jas.2007-0217Larzul, C., Ducrocq, V., Tudela, F., Juin, H., & Garreau, H. (2014). The length of productive life can be modified through selection: An experimental demonstration in the rabbit1. Journal of Animal Science, 92(6), 2395-2401. doi:10.2527/jas.2013-7216Rauw, W. ., Kanis, E., Noordhuizen-Stassen, E. ., & Grommers, F. . (1998). Undesirable side effects of selection for high production efficiency in farm animals: a review. Livestock Production Science, 56(1), 15-33. doi:10.1016/s0301-6226(98)00147-xBlasco, A., Martínez-Álvaro, M., García, M.-L., Ibáñez-Escriche, N., & Argente, M.-J. (2017). Selection for environmental variance of litter size in rabbits. Genetics Selection Evolution, 49(1). doi:10.1186/s12711-017-0323-4Argente, M. J., García, M. L., Zbyňovská, K., Petruška, P., Capcarová, M., & Blasco, A. (2019). Correlated response to selection for litter size environmental variability in rabbits’ resilience. animal, 13(10), 2348-2355. doi:10.1017/s1751731119000302Bolet, G., Esparbié, J., & Falières, J. (1996). Relations entre le nombre de fœtus par corne utérine, la taille de portée à la naissance et la croissance pondérale des lapereaux. Annales de Zootechnie, 45(2), 185-200. doi:10.1051/animres:19960207Poigner J., Szendrõ Zs., Lévai A., Radnai I., & Biró-Németh E. (2010). EFFECT OF BIRTH WEIGHT AND LITTER SIZE ON GROWTH AND MORTALITY IN RABBITS. World Rabbit Science, 8(1). doi:10.4995/wrs.2000.413TM Threshold Modelhttp://snp.toulouse.inra.fr/~alegarra/manualtm.pdfPeiró, R., Badawy, A. Y., Blasco, A., & Santacreu, M. A. (2019). Correlated responses on growth traits after two-stage selection for ovulation rate and litter size in rabbits. animal, 13(11), 2457-2462. doi:10.1017/s1751731119001423Pascual, J. J., Savietto, D., Cervera, C., & Baselga, M. (2013). Resources allocation in reproductive rabbit does: a review of feeding and genetic strategies for suitable performance. World Rabbit Science, 21(3). doi:10.4995/wrs.2013.1236Bolet, G., Garreau, H., Joly, T., Theau-Clement, M., Falieres, J., Hurtaud, J., & Bodin, L. (2007). Genetic homogenisation of birth weight in rabbits: Indirect selection response for uterine horn characteristics. Livestock Science, 111(1-2), 28-32. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2006.11.012Garreau, H., Bolet, G., Larzul, C., Robert-Granié, C., Saleil, G., SanCristobal, M., & Bodin, L. (2008). Results of four generations of a canalising selection for rabbit birth weight. Livestock Science, 119(1-3), 55-62. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2008.02.009Hamilton, H. H., Lukefahr, S. D., & McNitt, J. I. (1997). Maternal nest quality and its influence on litter survival and weaning performance in commercial rabbits. Journal of Animal Science, 75(4), 926. doi:10.2527/1997.754926xVicente, J., García-Ximénez, F., & Viudes-de-Castro, M. (1995). Neonatal performances in 3 lines of rabbit (litter sizes, litter and individual weights). Annales de Zootechnie, 44(3), 255-261. doi:10.1051/animres:19950305Hull, D., & Segall, M. M. (1965). The contribution of brown adipose tissue to heat production in the new-born rabbit. The Journal of Physiology, 181(3), 449-457. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1965.sp007773Spencer, S. A., & Hull, D. (1984). The effect of over-feeding newborn rabbits on somatic and visceral growth, body composition and long-term growth potential. British Journal of Nutrition, 51(3), 389-402. doi:10.1079/bjn19840045Venge, O. (1963). The influence of nursing behaviour and milk production on early growth in rabbits. Animal Behaviour, 11(4), 500-506. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(63)90269-0Coureaud, G., Schaal, B., Coudert, P., Rideaud, P., Fortun-Lamothe, L., Hudson, R., & Orgeur, P. (2000). Immediate postnatal sucking in the rabbit: Its influence on pup survival and growth. Reproduction Nutrition Development, 40(1), 19-32. doi:10.1051/rnd:2000117Argente, M. J., Santacreu, M. A., Climent, A., & Blasco, A. (1999). Phenotypic and genetic parameters of birth weight and weaning weight of rabbits born from unilaterally ovariectomized and intact does. Livestock Production Science, 57(2), 159-167. doi:10.1016/s0301-6226(98)00166-3Xiccato, G., Trocino, A., Sartori, A., & Queaque, P. I. (2004). Effect of parity order and litter weaning age on the performance and body energy balance of rabbit does. Livestock Production Science, 85(2-3), 239-251. doi:10.1016/s0301-6226(03)00125-8Rebollar, P. G., Pérez-Cabal, M. A., Pereda, N., Lorenzo, P. L., Arias-Álvarez, M., & García-Rebollar, P. (2009). Effects of parity order and reproductive management on the efficiency of rabbit productive systems. Livestock Science, 121(2-3), 227-233. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2008.06.01

IP-Based TV Technologies, Services and Multidisciplinary Applications

The move to Internet Protocol (IP)-based content delivery services has challenged the television industry by allowing high-quality television content to be delivered using the Internet, wired and wireless, private and public. The new convergence paradigm is already playing out its disruptive role as television is now associated with both a personal and social experience using an ecosystem of devices. The unidirectional flow of content from an operator to a device has thus morphed into a much richer combination of real-time on-demand web and user generated content complementing traditional programming