Courts\u27 Misuse of the Similarly Situated Concept in Employment Disrimination Law, The

This Article discusses the court’s misuse of the similarly situated concept. Part II is a short summary of the employment discrimination law, concentrating on the system developed by the Supreme Court for indirectly proving an individual disparate treatment case. Under the Supreme Court’s methodology, one way that a plaintiff may prove a prima facie case is to point to a similarly situated employee who the employer treated differently. Some courts, however, require a similarly situated showing as an element of plaintiff’s prima facie case. Part III discusses the problems with such a requirement. Part III.A briefly surveys the caselaw form the twelve federal circuits. Part III.B discusses the problems with imposing a similarly situated requirement as part of the plaintiff’s prima facie case. Such a requirement frustrates the purposes of a prima facie case and fails to account for the fact that the employer’s intent can be proven in a variety of ways. In addition, courts can always recognize distinctions between employees, sometimes making in unnecessarily difficult for a plaintiff to establish a prima facie case. Finally, such a requirement can improperly exclude certain types of employees from the protection of the employment discrimination laws

Contribution of the Ankle, Knee, and Hip to Total Lower Extremity Internal/External Rotation

The nature of the ankle, knee, and hip interaction can profoundly impact the movement patterns of the lower extremities. The ability to internally and externally rotate the lower extremity is essential in order to effectively absorb and apply force. In previous studies, most measurements have been conducted in 2D using a protractor, while mainly evaluating the hip. Dysfunction in any joint throughout the kinetic chain can lead to inefficient movement patterns that can compromise performance and potentially lead to injury. Appreciating the complexity of the lower extremity brings to attention the importance of any segments that are compromised. PURPOSE: To investigate the contribution of the ankle, knee, and hip to the total lower extremity internal rotation (IR) and external rotation (ER) range of motion (ROM) using a 3D camera system. METHODS: Fifteen college students participated in the study (21.2±1.9 years, 72.2±12.8 kg, 170.5±8.7 cm), eight males (21.1±1.2 years, 80.7±11.4 kg, 176.2±6.3 cm) and seven females (21.3±2.5 years, 62.5±5.0 kg, 163.8±6.0 cm). Lower extremity IR and ER ROM for each side were captured using 3D camera system, at 240 Hz. Each participant was instructed to perform maximal IR and ER in standing position, using sliding disk. Participants performed three trial of each rotation. Test-retest reliability identified good to excellent reliability, ICC 3,1 .797-.959. Based on this findings highest IR and ER ROM were further analyzed. Repeated measure ANOVAs were performed to determine differences between the three joints for each rotation and each side, followed by Bonferroni post-hoc analyses, were granted, pRESULTS: Significant main effect was found for IR of the right leg, p=.001 (hip 14.2o±5.5o, knee 12.0o±4.0o, and ankle 24.4o±9.9o). Post-hoc analyses revealed that ankle IR was significantly larger than hip IR (p=.022) and knee IR (p=.001). Significant main effect was found for IR of the left leg, p=.005 (hip 13.2o±3.4o, knee 12.2o± 5.6o, and ankle 23.6o±10.6o). Post-hoc analyses revealed that ankle IR was significantly larger than hip IR (p=.019) and knee IR (p=.003). Significant main effect was found for ER of the right leg, p=.001 (hip 17.1o±5.2o, knee 16.6o±3.1o, and ankle 26.8o±7.5o). Post-hoc analyses revealed that ankle ER was significantly larger than hip ER (p=.002) and knee ER (p=.001). No significant main effect was found for ER of the left leg, p=.138 (hip 18.7o±10.0o, knee 16.8o±5.9o, ankle 23.6o±7.3o). One-way ANOVAs Comparing between gender and side did not find any significant differences, p\u3e.05.CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that the ankle joint is contributing the most for IR and ER ROM. On average, ankle contributes 42%±9% to the lower extremity ROM during ER and 47%±13% during IR. The knee contributes 29%±9% to the lower extremity ROM during ER and 24%±8% during IR. The hip contributes 29%±10% to the lower extremity ROM during ER and 29%±12% during IR. Practitioners need to be caution when interpreting lower extremity or hip IR and ER ROM. Future studies need to further investigate the influence of each of the three joints IR and ER ROM on performance and injury

A mouse model of Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome: Defective long-term memory is ameliorated by inhibitors of phosphodiesterase 4

Mice carrying a truncated form of cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB)-binding protein (CBP) show several developmental abnormalities similar to patients with Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RTS). RTS patients suffer from mental retardation, whereas long-term memory formation is defective in mutant CBP mice. A critical role for cAMP signaling during CREB-dependent long-term memory formation appears to be evolutionarily conserved. From this observation, we reasoned that drugs that modulate CREB function by enhancing cAMP signaling might yield an effective treatment for the memory defect(s) of CBP+/- mice. To this end, we designed a cell-based drug screen and discovered inhibitors of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) to be particularly effective enhancers of CREB function. We extend previous behavioral observations by showing that CBP+/- mutants have impaired long-term memory but normal learning and short-term memory in an object recognition task. We demonstrate that the prototypical PDE4 inhibitor, rolipram, and a novel one (HT0712) abolish the long-term memory defect of CBP+/- mice. Importantly, the genetic lesion in CBP acts specifically to shift the dose sensitivity for HT0712 to enhance memory formation, which conveys molecular specificity on the drug's mechanism of action. Our results suggest that PDE4 inhibitors may be used to treat the cognitive dysfunction of RTS patients

Non-Governmental Organizations Contribution to Sustainable Development in West Africa

This study examines the role of non-governmental organizations contributing to sustainable development by addressing the violence during periods of an election in West Africa. More specifically, it highlights the role non-governmental organizations have as service-providers and facilitators in between journalists and the police in West Africa. The project aims to explain how the operations of non-governmental organizations that work for ensuring peace and security through independent media contribute to the fulfillment of the sustainable development goals to ensure peaceful societies. The study answers the research questions How can an NGO become an enabling actor for sustainable development? And What are the factors that determine how successful such efforts can be? Using a mixed method of a literature review and semi-structured interviews with people working on non-governmental organizations, the results show how non-governmental organizations are trustworthy due to their neutral role. The identified factors of success have mainly to do with the amount of legitimacy and resources of NGOs. The challenges are mainly to gain trust, both when it comes to the public and institutions. Further, this study shows that NGOs have a political actor with some challenges that they can overcome through legitimacy.  Keywords: West Africa, independent media, non-governmental organizations, sustainable development

Non-Governmental Organizations Contribution to Sustainable Development in West Africa

This study examines the role of non-governmental organizations contributing to sustainable development by addressing the violence during periods of an election in West Africa. More specifically, it highlights the role non-governmental organizations have as service-providers and facilitators in between journalists and the police in West Africa. The project aims to explain how the operations of non-governmental organizations that work for ensuring peace and security through independent media contribute to the fulfillment of the sustainable development goals to ensure peaceful societies. The study answers the research questions How can an NGO become an enabling actor for sustainable development? And What are the factors that determine how successful such efforts can be? Using a mixed method of a literature review and semi-structured interviews with people working on non-governmental organizations, the results show how non-governmental organizations are trustworthy due to their neutral role. The identified factors of success have mainly to do with the amount of legitimacy and resources of NGOs. The challenges are mainly to gain trust, both when it comes to the public and institutions. Further, this study shows that NGOs have a political actor with some challenges that they can overcome through legitimacy.  Keywords: West Africa, independent media, non-governmental organizations, sustainable development