Mécanismes responsables de l'activation corticale pendant le sommeil paradoxal

To move forward on the PS function, it is necessary to study its impact on the cortical functioning. We so compared the cortical genic expression by using DNA microarrays in three groups of rats with different PS amounts: control, deprived of PS and in PS hypersomnia. 71 and 83 transcripts have an expression level modified by our protocol in the neocortex and the hippocampal formation, respectively. These molecular results were confirmed by quantitative PCR. In the hippocampal formation the genes involved in synaptic plasticity (Fos, Arc, Cox2, Homer1) have an expression level increased after PS hypersomnia. In the contrary, in the neocortex the expression level of these genes increases after PS deprivation. At the systemic level, limbic areas (the dentate gyrus, anterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortex and claustrum) contain a number of FOS immunoreactive neurons, an indirect marker of neuronal activation, increased after PS hypersomnia. On the other hand, the number of FOS immunoreactive neurons in the sensory-motor cortices is decreased after PS hypersomnia compare to PS deprivation. The ejection of retrograde tracers in the dentate gyrus, retrosplenial and anterior cingulate cortex in PS hypersomniac rats showed that active neurons project to the supramammillary nucleus and claustrum. We then observed that the number of FOS and ARC immunoreactive neurons in the dentate gyrus, claustrum and limbic structures is strongly decreased during PS hypersomnia in rats bearing a supramammillary nucleus lesion. Furthermore, the supramammillary nucleus lesion leads to a decrease of the theta power recorded by electroencephalogram during PS in hypersomnia. It thus seems that the supramammillary nucleus projections are responsible for the limbic cortical regions activation during PSAfin d'avancer sur la fonction du sommeil paradoxal, il est nécessaire d'étudier son impact sur le fonctionnement cortical. Nous avons ainsi comparé l'expression génique corticale à l'aide de puces à ADN chez trois groupes de rats présentant différentes quantités de sommeil paradoxal (SP) : témoins, privé de SP ou en hypersomnie de SP. 71 et 83 transcrits montrent un niveau d'expression modifié par notre protocole dans le néocortex et l'hippocampe, respectivement. Ces résultats moléculaires ont été confirmés par PCR quantitative. Dans l'hippocampe l'expression des gènes de plasticité (Fos, Arc, Cox2, Homer1...) augmente en hypersomnie de SP. Au contraire, dans le néocortex le niveau d'expression de ces gènes augmente après privation de SP. Au niveau systémique, les aires limbiques (le gyrus dentelé, le cortex cingulé antérieur et rétrosplénial et le claustrum) contiennent un nombre de neurones immunoréactifs au FOS, un marqueur d'activation indirect, élevé après hypersomnie de sommeil paradoxal. En revanche, le nombre de neurones immunoréactifs au FOS dans les cortex sensoriels est diminué après hypersomnie par rapport à la privation de sommeil paradoxal L'éjection de traceurs rétrogrades dans le gyrus dentelé, le cortex rétrosplénial et le cortex cingulaire antérieur des rats en hypersomnie de SP a permis d'observer des neurones afférents et actifs dans les noyaux supramamillaires et le claustrum. Nous avons ensuite observé que le nombre de neurones immunoréactifs pour FOS, ARC dans le gyrus dentelé, le claustrum et certaines structures limbiques est fortement diminué pendant l'hypersomnie de SP chez des rats porteurs d'une lésion des noyaux supramamillaires. De plus, la lésion du Sum est accompagnée d'une diminution de la puissance du thêta enregistrée par l'électroencéphalogramme pendant le sommeil paradoxal en hypersomnie. Il semble donc que les projections des noyaux supramamillaires soient responsables de l'activation des régions limbiques corticales pendant le S

Mechanisms responsible of the cortical activation during paradoxical sleep

Afin d'avancer sur la fonction du sommeil paradoxal, il est nécessaire d'étudier son impact sur le fonctionnement cortical. Nous avons ainsi comparé l'expression génique corticale à l'aide de puces à ADN chez trois groupes de rats présentant différentes quantités de sommeil paradoxal (SP) : témoins, privé de SP ou en hypersomnie de SP. 71 et 83 transcrits montrent un niveau d'expression modifié par notre protocole dans le néocortex et l'hippocampe, respectivement. Ces résultats moléculaires ont été confirmés par PCR quantitative. Dans l'hippocampe l'expression des gènes de plasticité (Fos, Arc, Cox2, Homer1...) augmente en hypersomnie de SP. Au contraire, dans le néocortex le niveau d'expression de ces gènes augmente après privation de SP. Au niveau systémique, les aires limbiques (le gyrus dentelé, le cortex cingulé antérieur et rétrosplénial et le claustrum) contiennent un nombre de neurones immunoréactifs au FOS, un marqueur d'activation indirect, élevé après hypersomnie de sommeil paradoxal. En revanche, le nombre de neurones immunoréactifs au FOS dans les cortex sensoriels est diminué après hypersomnie par rapport à la privation de sommeil paradoxal L'éjection de traceurs rétrogrades dans le gyrus dentelé, le cortex rétrosplénial et le cortex cingulaire antérieur des rats en hypersomnie de SP a permis d'observer des neurones afférents et actifs dans les noyaux supramamillaires et le claustrum. Nous avons ensuite observé que le nombre de neurones immunoréactifs pour FOS, ARC dans le gyrus dentelé, le claustrum et certaines structures limbiques est fortement diminué pendant l'hypersomnie de SP chez des rats porteurs d'une lésion des noyaux supramamillaires. De plus, la lésion du Sum est accompagnée d'une diminution de la puissance du thêta enregistrée par l'électroencéphalogramme pendant le sommeil paradoxal en hypersomnie. Il semble donc que les projections des noyaux supramamillaires soient responsables de l'activation des régions limbiques corticales pendant le SPTo move forward on the PS function, it is necessary to study its impact on the cortical functioning. We so compared the cortical genic expression by using DNA microarrays in three groups of rats with different PS amounts: control, deprived of PS and in PS hypersomnia. 71 and 83 transcripts have an expression level modified by our protocol in the neocortex and the hippocampal formation, respectively. These molecular results were confirmed by quantitative PCR. In the hippocampal formation the genes involved in synaptic plasticity (Fos, Arc, Cox2, Homer1) have an expression level increased after PS hypersomnia. In the contrary, in the neocortex the expression level of these genes increases after PS deprivation. At the systemic level, limbic areas (the dentate gyrus, anterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortex and claustrum) contain a number of FOS immunoreactive neurons, an indirect marker of neuronal activation, increased after PS hypersomnia. On the other hand, the number of FOS immunoreactive neurons in the sensory-motor cortices is decreased after PS hypersomnia compare to PS deprivation. The ejection of retrograde tracers in the dentate gyrus, retrosplenial and anterior cingulate cortex in PS hypersomniac rats showed that active neurons project to the supramammillary nucleus and claustrum. We then observed that the number of FOS and ARC immunoreactive neurons in the dentate gyrus, claustrum and limbic structures is strongly decreased during PS hypersomnia in rats bearing a supramammillary nucleus lesion. Furthermore, the supramammillary nucleus lesion leads to a decrease of the theta power recorded by electroencephalogram during PS in hypersomnia. It thus seems that the supramammillary nucleus projections are responsible for the limbic cortical regions activation during P

Role of the sublaterodorsal tegmental nucleus in cortical activation and muscle atonia during paradoxical (REM) sleep: a functional neuroanatomical study

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Differential origin of the activation of dorsal and ventral dentate gyrus granule cells during paradoxical (REM) sleep in the rat

International audienceWe recently demonstrated that granule cells located in the dorsal dentate gyrus (dDG) are activated by neurons located in the lateral supramammillary nucleus (SumL) during paradoxical sleep (PS) hypersomnia. To determine whether these neurons are glutamatergic and/or GABAergic, we combined FOS immunostaining with in situ hybridization of vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (vGLUT2, a marker of glutamatergic neurons) or that of the vesicular GABA transporter (vGAT, a marker of GABAergic neurons) mRNA in rats displaying PS hyper-somnia (PSR). We found that 84 and 76 % of the FOS? SumL neurons in PSR rats expressed vGLUT2 and vGAT mRNA, respectively. Then, we examined vGLUT2 and FOS immunostaining in the dorsal and ventral DG of PSR rats with a neurochemical lesion of the Sum. In PSR-lesioned animals but not in sham animals, nearly all vGLUT2? fibers and FOS? neurons disappeared in the dDG, but not in the ventral DG (vDG). To identify the pathway (s) responsible (s) for the activation of the vDG during PS hypersomnia, we combined Fluorogold (FG) injection in the vDG of PSR rats with FOS staining. We found a large number of neurons FOS-FG?, specifically in the medial entorhinal cortex (ENTm). Altogether, our results suggest that SumL neurons with a unique dual glutamatergic and GABAergic phenotype are responsible for the activation of the dDG during PS hypersomnia, while vDG granule neurons are activated by ENTm cortical neurons. These results suggest differential mechanisms and functions for the activation of the dDG and the vDG granule cells during PS

Anatomical correlates of rapid eye movement sleep-dependent plasticity in the developing cortex

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is expressed at its highest levels during early life when the brain is rapidly developing. This suggests that REM sleep may play important roles in brain maturation and developmental plasticity. We investigated this possibility by examining the role of REM sleep in the regulation of plasticity-related proteins known to govern synaptic plasticity in vitro and in vivo. We combined immunohistochemistry with a classic model of experience-dependent plasticity in the developing brain known to be consolidated during sleep. We found that after the developing visual cortex is triggered to remodel, it is reactivated during REM sleep (as measured by FOS+ and ARC+ cells). This is accompanied by expression of several proteins implicated in synaptic long-term potentiation (PSD95 and phosphorylated (p), mTOR, cofilin, and CREB) across the different cortical layers. These changes did not occur in animals deprived of REM sleep, but were preserved in control animals that were instead awakened in non- (N) REM sleep. Collectively, these findings support a role for REM sleep in developmental brain plasticity.status: publishe

Anatomical correlates of rapid eye movement sleep-dependent plasticity in the developing cortex

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is expressed at its highest levels during early life when the brain is rapidly developing. This suggests that REM sleep may play important roles in brain maturation and developmental plasticity. We investigated this possibility by examining the role of REM sleep in the regulation of plasticity-related proteins known to govern synaptic plasticity in vitro and in vivo. We combined immunohistochemistry with a classic model of experience-dependent plasticity in the developing brain known to be consolidated during sleep. We found that after the developing visual cortex is triggered to remodel, it is reactivated during REM sleep (as measured by FOS+ and ARC+ cells). This is accompanied by expression of several proteins implicated in synaptic long-term potentiation (PSD95 and phosphorylated (p), mTOR, cofilin, and CREB) across the different cortical layers. These changes did not occur in animals deprived of REM sleep, but were preserved in control animals that were instead awakened in non- (N) REM sleep. Collectively, these findings support a role for REM sleep in developmental brain plasticity.status: publishe

Tuberal hypothalamic neurons secreting the satiety molecule Nesfatin-1 are critically involved in paradoxical (REM) sleep homeostasis.

The recently discovered Nesfatin-1 plays a role in appetite regulation as a satiety factor through hypothalamic leptin-independent mechanisms. Nesfatin-1 is co-expressed with Melanin-Concentrating Hormone (MCH) in neurons from the tuberal hypothalamic area (THA) which are recruited during sleep states, especially paradoxical sleep (PS). To help decipher the contribution of this contingent of THA neurons to sleep regulatory mechanisms, we thus investigated in rats whether the co-factor Nesfatin-1 is also endowed with sleep-modulating properties. Here, we found that the disruption of the brain Nesfatin-1 signaling achieved by icv administration of Nesfatin-1 antiserum or antisense against the nucleobindin2 (NUCB2) prohormone suppressed PS with little, if any alteration of slow wave sleep (SWS). Further, the infusion of Nesfatin-1 antiserum after a selective PS deprivation, designed for elevating PS needs, severely prevented the ensuing expected PS recovery. Strengthening these pharmacological data, we finally demonstrated by using c-Fos as an index of neuronal activation that the recruitment of Nesfatin-1-immunoreactive neurons within THA is positively correlated to PS but not to SWS amounts experienced by rats prior to sacrifice. In conclusion, this work supports a functional contribution of the Nesfatin-1 signaling, operated by THA neurons, to PS regulatory mechanisms. We propose that these neurons, likely releasing MCH as a synergistic factor, constitute an appropriate lever by which the hypothalamus may integrate endogenous signals to adapt the ultradian rhythm and maintenance of PS in a manner dictated by homeostatic needs. This could be done through the inhibition of downstream targets comprised primarily of the local hypothalamic wake-active orexin- and histamine-containing neurons

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity during sleep consolidates cortical plasticity in vivo

Ocular dominance plasticity (ODP) in the cat primary visual cortex (V1) is induced during waking by monocular deprivation (MD) and consolidated during subsequent sleep. The mechanisms underlying this process are incompletely understood. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) is activated in V1 during sleep after MD, but it is unknown whether ERK activation during sleep is necessary for ODP consolidation. We investigated the role of ERK in sleep-dependent ODP consolidation by inhibiting the ERK-activating enzyme MEK in V1 (via U0126) during post-MD sleep. ODP consolidation was then measured with extracellular microelectrode recordings. Western blot analysis was used to confirm the efficacy of U0126 and to examine proteins downstream of ERK. U0126 abolished ODP consolidation and reduced both phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and levels of the synaptic marker PSD-95. Furthermore, interfering with ERK-mediated translation by inhibiting MAP kinase-interacting kinase 1 (Mnk1) with CGP57380 mimicked the effects of U0126. These results demonstrate that ODP consolidation requires sleep-dependent activation of the ERK-Mnk1 pathway

Rapid eye movement sleep promotes cortical plasticity in the developing brain

Rapid eye movement sleep plays a critical role in shaping developing circuits in the cerebral cortex. Rapid eye movement sleep is maximal during early life, but its function in the developing brain is unknown. We investigated the role of rapid eye movement sleep in a canonical model of developmental plasticity in vivo (ocular dominance plasticity in the cat) induced by monocular deprivation. Preventing rapid eye movement sleep after monocular deprivation reduced ocular dominance plasticity and inhibited activation of a kinase critical for this plasticity (extracellular signal–regulated kinase). Chronic single-neuron recording in freely behaving cats further revealed that cortical activity during rapid eye movement sleep resembled activity present during monocular deprivation. This corresponded to times of maximal extracellular signal–regulated kinase activation. These findings indicate that rapid eye movement sleep promotes molecular and network adaptations that consolidate waking experience in the developing brain

HIPPOCAMPAL GENE EXPRESSION DURING PARADOXICAL SLEEP AS REVEALED BY CDNA MICROARRAY, QPCR AND IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY

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