Reliability-based design for debris flow barriers

In the European Union since 2010, the design of any type of structures must comply with EN-1997 Geotechnical Design (CEN 2004) (EC7) referring to engineering projects in the rock mechanics field. However, the design of debris flow countermeasures in compliance with EC7 requirements is not feasible: EC7 uses partial safety factors for design calculations, but safety factors are not provided for phenomena such as debris flows and rock falls. Consequently, how EC7 can be applied to the design of debris flow barriers is not clear, although the basic philosophy of reliability-based design (RBD), as defined in EN1990 (CEN 2002) and applicable to geotechnical applications, may be a suitable approach. However, there is insufficient understanding of interactions between debris flows and structures to support RBD application to debris flow barrier design, as full-scale experimental data are very limited and difficult to obtain. Laboratory data are available but they are governed by scale effects that limit their usefulness for full-scale problems. The article describes an analysis, using the first-order reliability method (FORM), of two different datasets, one obtained through laboratory experiments and the other reflecting historical debris flow events in the Jiangjia Ravine (China). Statistical analysis of laboratory data enabled a definition of the statistical distributions of the parameters that primarily influence debris flow and barrier interactions. These statistical distributions were then compared to the field data to explore the links between flume experiments and full-scale problems. This paper reports a first attempt to apply RBD to debris flow countermeasures, showing how the choice of the target probability of failure influences the barrier design resistance value. An analysis of the factors governing debris flows highlights the applicability and limitations of EN1990 and EN1997 in the design of these rock engineering structures

Evaluation of Strength and Deformability of Soft Sedimentary Rocks in Dry and Saturated Conditions Through Needle Penetration and Point Load Tests: A Comparative Study

The preparation of standardized soft rock specimens to perform unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests is typically difficult, expensive and time-consuming. Needle penetration test (NPT) was originally developed in Japan as an alternative for the indirect estimation of UCS of soft rocks. The needle penetrometer is a simple, portable and non-destructive testing device that measures applied load and penetration depth for the rock to calculate the needle penetration index (NPI). A complimentary, portable and widely used destructive test is the point load test (PLT), which measures regular and irregular specimens by the application of a concentrated load using two coaxial conical platens that yield the point load strength index (IS(50)). We investigated and compared the NPT and PLT in terms of measuring changes induced by water saturation and obtaining UCS and the static Young’s modulus (Est) for dry and saturated soft sedimentary rocks. The results point to significant correlation functions from which to infer UCS and Est in terms of NPI and IS(50) in dry and saturated soft rocks. Furthermore, both NPT and PLT are suitable tests for evaluating changes in strength and deformability induced by water saturation. We also found a good correlation between the NPI and Is(50).This research was supported by the Vice-rector of Research and Knowledge Transfer of the University of Alicante through predoctoral grant FPUUA53-2018 and projects UAUSTI18-21 and UAEEBB2018-09

Mecánica de rocas : fundamentos e ingeniería de taludes

Este libro ha nacido de las clases de Mecánica de Rocas que impartimos en la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid y en la de Vigo, y en el Máster Internacional “Aprovechamiento Sostenible de los Recursos Minerales”. Ha sido escrito pensando en los universitarios y en los profesionales de la geotecnia. A ambos colectivos les dedicamos con todo cariño esta obra en la que hemos invertido muchas horas durante los últimos años. El impulso para ponernos a escribir surgió cuando recibimos el encargo de la Cátedra Madariaga de la Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de la UPM de organizar unos cursos sobre estabilidad de taludes, que fueron financiados por la Comisión Nacional de Seguridad Minera, y el apoyo prestado por el Máster contribuyó a que se terminara el libro. Hay en esta obra dos partes claramente diferenciadas. La primera es de Fundamentos de Mecánica de Rocas y aquellos que posean ya un conocimiento general sobre esta materia podrían saltársela y comenzar a leer el libro en la segunda parte, que está dedicada a la Ingeniería de Taludes. No obstante, recordar las bases nunca está de más por lo que, sin duda alguna, la lectura ordenada del libro, de principio a fin, puede resultar muy provechosa. Evidentemente la obra es incompleta pues tanto la Mecánica de Rocas como la Ingeniería de Taludes han adquirido una extensión tal que resulta imposible resumirlas en un sólo libro, aunque sea tan extenso como éste. Los fundamentos variarán poco en los próximos años, pero ciertos aspectos prácticos y métodos de cálculo posiblemente serán superados en breve plazo. Esperamos, sin embargo, que el libro resulte útil durante un tiempo al menos tan largo como el que nos ha llevado escribirlo. El nivel de conocimientos que se requiere para leer el libro está al alcance de los alumnos de nuestras universidades; a propósito se ha partido de unas bases accesibles. No obstante, los problemas que se presentan en la ingeniería de taludes son, en general, únicos y se requiere experiencia para resolverlos correctamente. Varios profesores han contribuido con capítulos a esta obra: D. Ricardo Laín Huerta (Capítulo 9), D. Celestino González Nicieza y Dª Inmaculada Álvarez Fernández (Capítulo 15), Dª. Inmaculada Álvarez Fernández y Miguel Ángel Rodríguez Díaz (Capítulo 16), D. Fernando García Bastante (Capítulo 17), Dª. María Belarmina Díaz Aguado y D. Fernando Ariznavarreta Fernández (Capítulo 18). A todos ellos les agradecemos su colaboración

Failure mechanisms and stability analyses of granitic boulders focusing a case study in Galicia (Spain)

Granitic boulders are widespread geomorphological elements, particularly found in humid granitic areas. Although they seldom represent a hazard for people or infrastructures, sometimes their location in steep or natural slopes may jeopardise their stability and potentially affect people or infrastructures. In addition, their complex geometry makes the instability mechanisms difficult to identify, so it is even more difficult to compute factors of safety regarding their stability. In this paper, the authors analyse potential failure mechanisms of granite boulders based on analytical mechanic calculations and physical tilt tests, permitting understanding the phenomena under scrutiny. Then, they study the stability of one of these boulders: the Pena do Equilibrio or equilibrium rock. To do that they resort to standard geotechnical characterization and advanced geometrical characterization derived from UAV photogrammetric and 3D Laser Scanning of the boulder. The presented results exemplify how the application of these recently available topographic technologies, in combination with rock mechanics approaches, enable a rigorous analysis of the stability of granite boulders

Numerical analysis of anisotropic stiffness and strength for geomaterials

In numerical modelling, selection of the constitutive model is a critical factor in predicting the actual response of a geomaterial. The use of oversimplified or inadequate models may not be sufficient to reproduce the actual geomaterial behaviour. That selection is especially relevant in the case of anisotropic rocks, and particularly for shales and slates, whose behaviour may be affected, e.g. well stability in geothermal or oil and gas production operations. In this paper, an alternative anisotropic constitutive model has been implemented in the finite element method software CODE_BRIGHT, which is able to account for the anisotropy of shales and slates in terms of both deformability and strength. For this purpose, a transversely isotropic version of the generalised Hooke's law is adopted to represent the stiffness anisotropy, while a nonuniform scaling of the stress tensor is introduced in the plastic model to represent the strength anisotropy. Furthermore, a detailed approach has been proposed to determine the model parameters based on the stress–strain results of laboratory tests. Moreover, numerical analyses are performed to model uniaxial and triaxial tests on Vaca Muerta shale, Bossier shale and slate from the northwest of Spain (NW Spain slate). The experimental data have been recovered from the literature in the case of the shale and, in the case of the slate, performed by the authors in terms of stress-strain curves and strengths. A good agreement can be generally observed between numerical and experimental results, hence showing the potential applicability of the approach to actual case studies. Therefore, the presented constitutive model may be a promising approach for analysing the anisotropic behaviour of rocks and its impact on well stability or other relevant geomechanical problems in anisotropic rocks.The experimental part of the slate in this work was funded by REPSOL S.A. The numerical part of this work was supported by the CODE_BRIGHT Project (International Centre for Numerical Methods in Engineering). The work of the second and fourth authors was possible thanks to the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, who funded the project, awarded under Contract Reference No. RTI 2018-093563-B-I00, partially financed by means of the European regional development fund (ERDF) funds from the European Union (EU).Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Considerations Relevant to the Stability of Granite Boulders

Granite boulders are characteristic geomorphological structures formed in granitic terrains. Due to their formation process associated with typical spheroidal weathering phenomena, they tend to show more or less ellipsoidal shapes prone to instability, and they often lie on small contact surfaces. Analyzing the stability of these boulders is not a straightforward task. First, these boulders may topple or slide. Additionally, their typically irregular geometry and uneven contact with the surface where they lie makes the analysis more complex. The authors have identified some critical issues that are relevant to characterize these boulders from a rock mechanics point of view, with the aim of estimating the stability of boulders. In particular, an accurate description of the geometry of the boulder is necessary to perform accurate toppling calculations. Additionally, the contact area and the features of the contact plane need to be known in detail. The study is intended to serve as a guideline to address the stability of these granite boulders in a rigorous way, since standard rock mechanics approaches (planar failure, toppling stability, standard rock joint strength criteria, etc.) may not be directly applicable to these particular cases.The first author acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for financial support of a related project awarded under Contract Reference No. RTI2018-093563-B-I00, partially financed by means of ERDF funds from the EU. The first author also gratefully thanks the Commission for Cultural, Educational, Scientific Exchange between the USA and Spain of the Fulbright Program for financing a Scholar Visit to Colorado School of Mines, where part of this study was completed. The fourth author acknowledges funding of part of his research in association boulder geometry acquisition from EU FEDER under Project TEC2017-85244-C2-1-P and by the University of Alicante (vigrob-157 and GRE18-05)

A case of compatibility between quarrying of ornamental granite and forest exploitation

A particular development is proposed to mine some good quality out crops of granite found in a forest exploitation of eucalypts. The exploitation has been designed with a quarrying method, in which small open cast pits are opened and quarried sequentially, and later filled with the waste of the new open pit. Soil is finally used to cover this waste, so new growing tree areas are gaine

Influence of water content on the basic friction angle of porous limestones—experimental study using an automated tilting table

An accurate evaluation of the shear strength of discontinuities is frequently a key aspect for determining the safety of mining and civil engineering works and for solving instability issues at rock mass scale. This is usually done by using empirical shear strength criteria in which the basic friction angle (φb) is a relevant input parameter. Tilt testing is probably the most widespread method to obtain the φb due to its simplicity and low cost, but previous research has demonstrated that the results are strongly affected by several factors (e.g. surface finishing, cutting speed, specimen geometry, wear, time and rock type). In this connection, despite it is well known that water significantly reduces the mechanical properties of sedimentary rocks, very scarce research has focused on assessing the impact of the variations in water content on tilt test results. With the aim to fill this gap, saw-cut slabs of three limestone lithotypes were tilt tested in dry state, wet condition (fully water saturated, non-submerged samples) and under exposure to an environmental relative humidity (RH) of 90%. The results revealed that full water saturation caused moderate φb reductions in two lithotypes and a φb increase in one lithotype. This can be explained by their different microstructure and mineralogy, which makes that lubrication effect prevails over suction effect or vice versa. However, the exposure to a high RH environment did not cause significant φb variations. In addition, some important considerations related to tilt testing are provided and discussed, such as the intrinsic variability of the sliding angle (β) and the impact of multiple sliding on the same rock surfaces on β.Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This work was partially supported by the Vicerrectorado de Investigación y Transferencia del Conocimiento of the University of Alicante through the projects UAUSTI18-21, UAUSTI20-20 and UAUSTI19-25

ROFRAQ: A statistics-based empirical method for assessing accident risk from rockfalls in quarries. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences.

This paper describes an empirical method, called Rockfall Risk Assessment for Quarries (ROFRAQ), which assesses the risk associated with rock falls in quarries. The method is based on aprobabilistic approach that assumes that an accident occurs as a consequence of as equence of events. This method has been applied to slopes in a number of quarries, and has proved useful indetecting trouble some slopes on the basis of empirical evidence. Thus far, it has been applied to around 100 slopes from various quarries of different rocks. These results show satisfactory agreement with results for empirical methods applied in the civil engineering field to highways and roads. The authors describe a case study of a granite aggregate quarry that highlights a number of issues in relation to practical application of the method

Hydrostatic, strike-slip and normal stress true triaxial hydrofracturing testing of Blanco Mera Granite: breakdown pressure and tensile strength assessment

Financiado para publicación en acceso aberto: Universidade da Coruña/CISUG[Abstract:] We have designed and built a versatile testing device to perform hydraulic fracturing experiments under true triaxial conditions. The device, based on a stiff biaxial frame that can be installed in a servocontrolled press, can accommodate cube rock samples of up to 150 mm-edge. Using a low-permeability rock known as Blanco Mera granite, we have performed a series of tests across a range of confining pressures including hydrostatic, normal, and strike-slip regimes. We have verified the applicability of two simple fracture mechanics-based models for the interpretation of experimental results, and we have determined the value of tensile strength of the rock from the injection curves recorded. The orientation of the hydraulically-triggered fractures with respect to the applied stress has also been analyzed. Although the models proposed by Rummel and Abou-Sayed provided reasonably satisfactory results, especially for hydrostatic and strike-slip tests, the presence of heterogeneities and defects in the rock matrix may have a strong influence on the fracture behavior and, therefore, affect the interpretation of hydrofracturing tests.This work was funded by REPSOL S.A. and the support of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PID2021-126419NB-I00). A. Muñoz-Ibáñez also acknowledges the Margarita Salas grant from the Spanish Ministry of Universities, funded by the European Union – Next Generation EU. Funding for open access charge: Universidade da Coruña/CISUG