Farming through the Auca Runa: Agricultural Strategies and Terraces during the Late Intermediate Period, Altiplano, Peru

This dissertation examines agricultural strategies farmers employed to cope with the consequences of war and drought in the southern Peruvian Andes during the Late Intermediate Period (A.D. 1100-1450) using paleoethnobotanical data from the fortified hilltop site Ayawiri and findings from excavations of a terrace complex flanking the site. During the Late Intermediate Period, lifeways dissolved into a period of endemic warfare after the collapse of Tiwanaku. At the same time a well-documented, century-long drought surely threatened food security. Interested in how farmers responded to this political and climatic disjuncture, I analyzed 108 flotation samples collected from the residential area of one of the largest hillfort communities in the region. Macrobotanical samples were collected from hearths, houses, kitchens, patios, and middens at Ayawiri. These data indicate that as trade networks broke down and imported lower elevation crops such as maize were no longer options during the Late Intermediate Period, residents turned to locally-grown crops including quinoa, potatoes and other tubers. I conducted multi-variate analysis of Chenopodium spp. seeds and found both quinoa and kañawa in copious quantities. Weedy chenopod seeds were very rare in these samples. These data contribute a deeper understanding of pre-Colonial crop selection, phenotypes, and weed management in the Andes. Macrobotanical data also contribute to an understanding of camelid grazing strategies employed during the Late Intermediate Period. Herds were intensively grazed in fields and foddered on crops and rarely brought to wetland microenvironments. I carried out excavations and analysis of the form of the terrace complex that flanks the hillfort at Ayawiri to determine when the field complex was constructed and how farmers managed this landscape. Using a combination of ceramic sylistic seriation, AMS dating, and a novel application of optically stimulated luminescence dating I found that the terraces below the site were constructed during the Late Intermediate Period using household labor. Macrobotanical data and information from the terrace excavations contribute two important conclusions about the impact of drought and consequences of warfare on lifeways during the Late Intermediate Period. First, the adoption of an intensification strategy – terrace farming – and a dependence on only a limited array of cultivars indicate the consequences of warfare profoundly influenced Ayawiri farming strategies. The local community built their fields and grazed their herds near their homes rather than taking advantage of lacustrine or riverine microenvironments, which would have buffered against crop loss due to climate unpredictability. Additionally, I recovered sling stones in the terraces indicating this built landscape served a defensive function. The second conclusion I came to is the expansive terrace system around the site did not require centralized labor to create or farm, but rather was the product of households adapting to the challenges of their time. In sum, this study provides an important understanding of agriculture, land use strategies, and sociopolitical organization of farm labor during the Late Intermediate Period

A Paleoethnobotanical Analysis of Three Formative Period Wankarani Sites Located in the Department of Oruro, Bolivia

The Wankarani people are often cited as an example of early camelid pastoralism in South America. However, research on early camelid pastoralism has ignored the importance of plants, especially the cultivation of domesticated plants in this region. The Wankarani people lived in the central altiplano of the south-central Andes during the Formative period: 2000 B.C.-A.D. 400). Previous research has assumed that the Wankarani people were cultivating domestic plants. This research explores the evidence for both wild and domesticated plant use among the Wankarani while furthering the understanding of the development of subsistence strategies of pastoralists cultures. Using paleoethnobotanical methods of analysis of samples from three different sites, this research identifies wild plant use and domesticated plant use of the Wankarani. The samples analyzed were derived from excavations carried out in 2008 in the Department of Oruro, Bolivia by José Capriles, a doctoral candidate at Washington University in St. Louis. These data provide insight into the importance of the plant economy during the Formative period in the central altiplano. The identification of carbonized parenchyma: plant storage tissue) and seeds confirm that the Wankarani people cultivated tubers and Chenopodium plants. Furthermore, the high quantities of remains of these plants at all three sites are evidence that they were important components of the Wankarani economy. Preliminary analysis of chenopod seed demonstrates the cultivation of at least two domesticated Chenopodium species. In addition, a fungus that grew on tubers was identified. High quantities of carbonized tubers and fungus fragments indicate that the Wankarani struggled with a plant pathogen. These data confirm the importance of wild and domesticated plant use among the Wankarani peoples and the importance of plants to pastoral populations in the highlands of the Andes

Greetings from Governor Arthur B. Langlie

President Nichoson, Officers, and Members of the State Bar and Bench. I always enjoy fellowship with my fellow members of the Bar and am particularly happy to be here with you today I know that many of you are here to talk shop, and perhaps the things I would like to discuss with you today may seem to some of you a little off the beaten path for which you traveled over here, but I cannot overlook the opportunity, as Governor, to talk with men and women that I feel must exercise a tremendous influence upon the people of our state, and in these times that influence is particularly important

Teacher Performance Assessments: Exploring Student Perspectives Of The Edtpa

At least 34 states require teacher candidates to complete a comprehensive teacher performance assessment (edTPA) during their student teaching experience. Teacher candidates are assigned the edTPA during this critical time in their preparation. One state--Minnesota--uses the edTPA portfolio exclusively for teacher preparation program approval. Teacher candidates in Minnesota thus devote considerable effort, during a critical time in their teacher preparation program, in the completion of an assessment where the results do not affect their ability to obtain a teaching license. This study explored the impact of the edTPA\u27s timing and perception of personal benefit on the level of effort teacher candidates were willing to invest. Twenty-two teacher candidates, from three Midwestern colleges and universities participated in semi-structured interviews and focus group meetings. A grounded theory, qualitative study revealed teacher candidates\u27 perspectives and the meanings they ascribe to the process of completing an edTPA. Findings indicate that many teacher candidates were willing to devote time to the assessment despite the challenges they faced during the process; however, they did not perceive the edTPA to be an accurate reflection of their readiness for teaching. Most participants were also able to recognize personal benefits gained from completion of the edTPA. An additional finding revealed that most teacher candidates believed that if the due date were later in the student teaching semester, their readiness for teaching would be more accurately reflected. As a result of this study, teacher education programs, particularly in Minnesota, may wish to consider implementation decisions that are responsive to teacher candidates\u27 perspectives

Address by Arthur B. Langlie, Governor of the State of Washington

Today I hope to take a little of your time, rather than try to extend some complimentary greeting of some kind or another, I would like to take this opportunity to talk a little bit about our government, our state government, some of its problems, primarily its tax problems, because some of you may have noted already that while the law has not become effective as yet, that there is going to be a slight tap on your personal income in the way of an increase in the business and occupational tax, and I want to talk to you about it because, in these days of increasing costs in all areas of activity, I think it is necessary to understand that government has some of the same problems during the period of inflation that the private citizen has. While we strive in government to reduce costs where we can, there are some limitations upon our ability to do so, and I think it is necessary for the people generally to have an appreciation of what the government is up against

An Educational Resource Forum for Family Caregivers of Individuals with Alzheimer\u27s Disease

There are currently 10 million Americans who care for a loved one with Alzheimer\u27s disease or another form of dementia (Alzheimer\u27s Association, 2008). Monitoring and maintaining the health of the caregiver is important because it allows the individual with Alzheimer\u27s disease to remain in their familiar home environment for as long as possible. It has been proven that both physical and emotional health of a caregiver decline with the demands associated with caregiving (O\u27Rourke, Cappeliez, & Neufeld, 2007). Healthcare professionals are responsible for assisting caregivers with maintaining their own health while caring for their loved one. Therefore, it is important to develop and implement health education directed toward a caregiver to promote their overall health and well-being. A review of the literature revealed that emotional and physical health of a caregiver is negatively impacted with the increased demands associated with caregiving (O\u27Rourke et al., 2007). Demographic differences including gender, age, race, premorbid relationship satisfaction, education, and income all are found to affect the experience felt by the caregiver. A variety of interventions including education, psychoeducation, supportive therapy, respite care, psychotherapy, and multicomponent approaches have been shown to be beneficial to the caregiver population and have been useful in decreasing burden and in improving overall health and well-being. This educational resource forum was designed to maintain or improve a caregiver\u27s physical and emotional health enabling them to adequately care for their loved one for as long as possible. The forum used an interdisciplinary, multicomponent approach and incorporated education, psycho education, supportive therapy, and community resources into the interactive six-session course. Future plans consist of pilot testing and implementation of this educational series into community settings within the region

Travelling Wave Analysis of Nonlinear Maxwell Models with Applications to Nonlinear Optics

In 1877 John Kerr described an experiment that demonstrated a quadratic change in refractive index in a plate glass placed in a strong external electric field. This results in a nonlinear relationship between the average electric polarization within the materials and the intensity of the applied electric field. This opened the door for a new area of electromagnetic material science by incorporating nonlinearity into the basic Maxwell system, which in general describes a linear relationship between the electric and magnetic fields. Since then multiple other nonlinear effects have been found in materials that need to be incorporated into Maxwell's equations to accurately model the dynamical evolution of the polarization driven by the electric field. In this thesis, we explore a model of one linear and two nonlinear effects that are incorporated into the Maxwell's Equations via the macroscopic polarization. This will include a single linear Lorentz dispersion, the nonlinear instantaneous electronic Kerr response as well as the non-instantaneous Raman vibrational response. We will consider one spatial dimension and investigate electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation in these nonlinear materials. To do so, we will include these effects in our constitutive equations for the relationship between the electric field and displacement and reduce our system of partial differential equations (PDEs) into a system of nonlinear ordinary differential equations (ODEs) by assuming traveling wave solutions. Using linear stability analysis from dynamical systems theory allows us to predict behavioral changes in the electric and magnetic fields for an EM traveling wave passing through a material. We will consider the stability of steady states through an eigenvalue analysis of the linearized ODE system and consider the character of arising bifurcations. We have proved that varying the response time parameter of the Lorentz and Raman effects produces a degenerate Hopf bifurcation, and the varying the velocity of our traveling wave solution results in a pitchfork bifurcation. We will also look for changes in behavior arising from a Leapfrog time discretization of the ODE system of the Maxwell Lorentz-Kerr model relative to those in the continuum case, with the predicted stability being preserved in the discrete case under certain conditions

Improving Breeding Selection Efficiency: Advanced Population Designs and In Vitro Technology

Cultivar progression requires years of development prior to performance trials; reducing development time requirements as well as introgression of favorable alleles is crucial to the rapid improvement of cultivars. Multi-parental advance generation intercrossing (MAGIC) can provide improved genetic mapping resolution through increased allelic diversity and higher effective recombination frequencies. The Four Parent Maize (FPM; Zea mays L.) population implements a series of the strategies used in MAGIC and bi-parental populations, creating a mapping population comprised of 1,149 individuals with 118,509 markers for comparison of effects on genetic mapping resolution and accuracy of quantitative trait locus (QTL) allelic estimates. Measurements were recorded for plant height (PH), ear height (EH), days to anthesis (DTA) and silking (DTS) in seven environments spanning three years. While increasing the generations of intermating prior to selection does not increase the phenotypic distribution among the dihybrid subpopulations, it does increase the mapping resolution of QTL for EH, DTA and DTS. Using association mapping software we have identified an allele from Tx903 on chromosome 3 which decreased plant and ear height, by 4.2 and 3.7 cm, respectively. Additionally, an allele that decreases flowering time by one day was donated by Tx903 and Tx772. The detection of these QTL have previously been reported in the same region, but the allelic effect has yet to be validated. Although a single QTL was found for each quantitative trait, it is expected that many additional QTL are present; but were undiscovered due to the conservative nature of the Bonferroni multiple test correction criteria. Linkage map construction will improve estimates of the effects of multiple founders and advance generation intermating on increased effective recombination and resulting accuracy in QTL estimation and mapping resolution. Cycling of plant cells in vitro could reduce generation times required for new cultivar development. Carrot (Daucus carota) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) species were selected for their extensive tissue culture history and high tolerance toward in vitro manipulation. Isolation of parental protoplasts from cell suspensions was followed by sorting of individual cells through fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACs); expectantly allowing for production of totipotent single cell derived colonies. Supposed colonies could be designated, with marker assisted selection for further in vitro cycling or regeneration and advancement to performance trials. Demonstrating that single cells can be isolated, can divide to form cell colonies, and can be genotyped and regenerated is central to testing the proposed hypothesis of Cycling of Gametes in Vitro (CoGiV) as conceivable. This will warrant further testing towards development of procedures intended for in vitro gametogenesis induction

Implementing Unmanned Aerial Systems Within a Field-Based Maize (Zea mays L.) Breeding Program: Improving Yield Prediction and Understanding Temporal QTL Expression of Plant Height

Unmanned aerial system (UAS) technologies are becoming common place within field-based agriculture programs allowing breeders to evaluate greater numbers of genotypes, reducing resource inputs and maintaining unbiased data collection. A comprehensive evaluation was conducted focused on the implementation of UAS technologies within a field-based maize breeding program using the plant height phenotype as a proof of concept in implementation and validation. A robust data processing pipeline was developed to extract height measurements from RGB structure from motion (SfM) point clouds. The 95th percentile (P95) height estimates exceeded 70% correlation to manual ground truth measurements across diverse germplasm groups of hybrid (F1) and inbred lines. Sigmoidal functions were developed to model the overall growth and trajectory of hybrids (R^2 : >98%; RMSE: 99%; RMSE: 1.5- fold similar to functional growth parameters. A ~4-fold improvement in indirect selection of hybrid grain yield was achieved using functional growth parameters compared to conventional manual, terminal plant height (PHTTRML). We expanded our implementation of UAS phenotyping to evaluate three inbred line mapping populations aimed at studying functional QTL and temporal QTL expression. Functional growth parameters identified 34 associations explaining 3 to 15% genetic variation. Height was estimated at one-day intervals to 85 DAS using the Weibull function, identifying 58 unique temporal peak QTL locations. Temporal QTL demonstrated all of the identified significant QTL had dynamic expression patterns. In all, UAS technologies improved phenotypic selection accuracy and have capacity to monitor traits on a temporal scale furthering our understanding of crop development and biological trajectories

Measuring factors that influence the utilisation of preventive care services provided by general practitioners in Australia

Background: Relatively little research attention has been given to the development of standardised and psychometrically sound scales for measuring influences relevant to the utilisation of health services. This study aims to describe the development, validation and internal reliability of some existing and new scales to measure factors that are likely to influence utilisation of preventive care services provided by general practitioners in Australia.----- Methods: Relevant domains of influence were first identified from a literature review and formative research. Items were then generated by using and adapting previously developed scales and published findings from these. The new items and scales were pre-tested and qualitative feedback was obtained from a convenience sample of citizens from the community and a panel of experts. Principal Components Analyses (PCA) and internal reliability testing (Cronbach's alpha) were then conducted for all of the newly adapted or developed scales utilising data collected from a self-administered mailed survey sent to a randomly selected population-based sample of 381 individuals (response rate 65.6 per cent).----- Results: The PCA identified five scales with acceptable levels of internal consistency were: (1) social support (ten items), alpha 0.86; (2) perceived interpersonal care (five items), alpha 0.87, (3) concerns about availability of health care and accessibility to health care (eight items), alpha 0.80, (4) value of good health (five items), alpha 0.79, and (5) attitudes towards health care (three items), alpha 0.75.----- Conclusion The five scales are suitable for further development and more widespread use in research aimed at understanding the determinants of preventive health services utilisation among adults in the general population