Evaluation of growth, milk and manure production in Norwegian dairy goats in one highland of Tanzania 30 years after introduction

Dairy goats have been imported into Tanzania since the 1960s to improve the milk production of Small East African (SEA) goats through crossbreeding. The SEA goats have poor genetic potential for milk. Although crossbreeding programmes started in the early 1980s, most were abandoned or failed for a number of reasons, including lack of performance records, which were important for the design and management of breeding programmes for dairy goats. This study was designed to evaluate growth, lactation, and manure yield in Norwegian Landrace (NL) goats in one rural community of Tanzania. Growth was evaluated in 211 goats by birth weight (BW), weaning weight (WW), weight at six (W6M) and nine months (W9M), and average daily gain (ADG). Lactation performance involved lactation milk yield (LMY), lactation length (LL), and dry off days in 251 does. Twenty four additional goats were confined to determine manure production and chemical composition in a different on-station study. The general linear model (GLM) of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) was used in data analysis. Averages for BW, WW, and adult weight (W9M) were 3.27 ± 0.04, 12.79 ± 0.09, and 28.33 ± 0.19 kg, respectively. Average LMY of 322 litres, LL 214.5 days and dry off days of 84 were obtained. Animals with ≥75% NL genetic make-up produced more milk and showed longer LL and higher ADG than those with 50%. For example, BW was 3.38 ± 0.12 kg in 75% NL animals compared with 2.56 ± 0.12 kg in 50%, whereas LMY was 324.09 ± 16.22 and 248.67 ± 16.20, respectively. The amount of manure was 311.8 g and 218 g per day for mature and grower goats, respectively. Nitrogen was the major content, comprising 1.98% of all nutrients in manure. Compared with the early years of introducing NL goats, growth and productivity of milk have increased several fold, indicating that the development of NL goats in Mgeta is positive at the moment.Keywords: Exotic goats, goat kids, Mgeta, productivity, smallholde

Targeting best agricultural practices to enhance ecosystem services in European mountains

Agri-environmental policies in Europe are failing to sufficiently address ongoing environmental degradation, biodiversity decline, climate impacts, and societal demands for sustainability. To reverse this, policymakers, practitioners, and farmers need better guidance on which specific agricultural practice/s should be promoted and how to adapt current practices to reach the desired objectives. Here we use social valuation tools to elucidate the relationship between agricultural practices and the provision of key ecosystem services in mountains, including maintenance of scenery from agricultural landscapes, conservation of biodiversity, regulation of climate change through carbon sequestration, production of local quality products, maintenance of soil fertility, and prevention of forest wildfires. We use as case studies two contrasting but representative mountain agroecosystems in the Mediterranean and Nordic regions of Europe. We analyze the best agricultural practices in both agroecosystems to reach the targeted environmental outcomes under three plausible policy scenarios. We find significant differences in the average contribution of agricultural practices to ecosystem services provision, which suggest the need for regionalizing the research efforts and, consequently, the design of agri-environmental policies. However, we also identify practices for ecosystem service delivery across policy scenarios and agroecosystems. Among these, grazing and silviculture practices such as extending the grazing period, grazing in semi-natural habitats, grazing in remote and abandoned areas, adapting stocking rate to the carrying capacity, and moving flocks seasonally, stand out for their relevance in all policy scenarios. These results highlight the potential of adequate grazing and silviculture practices to deliver bundles of ecosystem services. Our study provides guidance to design agri-environmental policies in Europe that focus on rewarding farmers for their sustainable management of natural resources, climate change mitigation and adaption and biodiversity conservation

Balancing international trade and local production for food and nutrition security: animal-sourced foods’ contribution to human welfare

Animal-sourced foods make a valuable contribution to the diets of consumers from countries across the economic development spectrum. They provide essential micronutrients including iron, vitamin A, vitamin B12, iodine, and zinc, to balance diets which, apart from vitamin B12, are more bioavailable than in plant-sourced foods. This is important for consumers with high needs including young children, pregnant and lactating women, and malnourished people. Although international trade has great potential to distribute animal products to satisfy global food demand, current trade flows are not achieving this goal in many low and lower middle-income countries. Multilateral efforts, supported by high-income countries, are needed to orientate international trade systems to provide better food and nutrition security. The continuity of trade in filling nutrient deficiencies is often disrupted in times of economic depression, conflict, or natural disaster. Suppliers can retain food resources for their own consumers, while in low-income countries most consumers can ill-afford expensive imports. Stability in most countries’ supply of animal-sourced foods must rely on the resourcefulness of domestic family-based farmers, who produce up to 80% of the world’s food. While encouraging the international trade of animal-sourced foods, governments need to ensure that they develop policies that support these local production units to remain profitable to meet domestic consumption needs. These policies must be developed in the context of the UN’s doctrine of a Right to Food designed to ensure individual countries provide good governance and resources to minimize hunger and poverty

Replacing commercial concentrate by Ficus thonningii improved productivity of goats in Ethiopia

Ficus thonningii (FT) is an important multipurpose fodder tree providing economic and ecological benefits across arid and semi-arid areas in Africa. Despite its availability in many Sub-Saharan African countries, there is lack of information on its effect on animal productivity. Twenty-four male weaned highland goats of age 7 ± 1.5 months were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments in a completely randomized block design. All animals were fed wheat straw, water, and salt licks ad libitum. The control group (T1) was fed concentrate mixture at 2 % of their body weight, while in T2, T3, and T4, 25, 50, and 75 % of the weight of concentrate (DM basis), respectively, was replaced by sun dried FT leaf meal. FT leaf meal had acceptable levels crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and tannins and has resulted in increased body weight in all treatments. Goats fed T3 diet showed significantly higher (P < 0.05) values in terms of feed intake, body weight gain, some carcass attributes, and local meat quality indicators than the rest of the treatments. An increase in proportion of FT leaf meal beyond 50 %, however, resulted in decreased body weight gain, and other carcass parameters, despite increased feed intake. Therefore, F. thonningii can be used to replace commercial concentrate mixture up to 50 % to improve feed intake and productivity of Ethiopian highland goats

Silvopastoral system based on Ficus thonningii: An adaptation to climate change in northern Ethiopia

This study in northern Ethiopia investigated local people's perception of climate change and the role of indigenous silvopastoralism in adaptation to that change. Two hundred and forty respondents participated in a questionnaire survey and group discussions. Local communities perceive climate change in terms of biophysical and socio-economic indicators. In selecting, evaluating and comparing fodder trees for a climate-resilient silvopastoral system, local farmers used 20 criteria of varying importance and belonging to three categories: animal-based, plant-based and multipurpose. In terms of suitability for climate-resilient silvopastoral system, Ficus thonningii was ranked first among the top 10 species of trees with a composite score of 8.7 out of 10, followed by Cordia africana, Eucalyptus cameldulensis and Rhus natalensis. Locally developed protocols for propagation and use of F. thonningii have enabled establishment of a climate-resilient, sustainable silvopastoral system. As this practice combines climate change mitigation and adaptation, silvopastoral practices using locally adaptable species are recommended

Silvopastoral system based on Ficus thonningii: an adaptation to climate change in northern Ethiopia

This study in northern Ethiopia investigated local people’s perception of climate change and the role of indigenous silvopastoralism in adaptation to that change. Two hundred and forty respondents participated in a questionnaire survey and group discussions. Local communities perceive climate change in terms of biophysical and socioeconomic indicators. In selecting, evaluating and comparing fodder trees for a climate-resilient silvopastoral system, local farmers used 20 criteria of varying importance and belonging to three categories: animal-based, plant-based and multipurpose. In terms of suitability for climate-resilient silvopastoral system, Ficus thonningii was ranked first among the top 10 species of trees with a composite score of 8.7 out of 10, followed by Cordia africana, Eucalyptus cameldulensis and Rhus natalensis. Locally developed protocols for propagation and use of F. thonningii have enabled establishment of a climate-resilient, sustainable silvopastoral system. As this practice combines climate change mitigation and adaptation, silvopastoral practices using locally adaptable species are recommended.Keywords: agroforestry, arid, browse, cattle, climate chang

Use of dried kapenta (Limnothrissa miodon and Stolothrissa tanganicae) and other products based on whole fish for complementing maize-based diets

Poor nutritional status both for children and adults is highly prevalent in those parts of sub-Saharan Africa where maize is a dominant staple. Maize is not a complete food, and if the child’s diet is only based on white maize, it may be deficient in calcium, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B12, vitamin E, vitamin K, folate, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, niacin, potassium and iron. Inadequate intake of essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals and trace elements is associated with reduced growth, weakening of immunological functions and enhanced morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases, including measles, diarrhoeal diseases, parasite infestations, tuberculosis and HIV disease. Pregnant women and people suffering from infectious diseases, including HIV and tuberculosis, need a diet rich in protein and micronutrients. During pregnancy, growth requirements for the foetus must be covered. Infections lead to significant metabolic changes with enhanced rates of degradation or excretion of several nutrients including total protein, essential amino acids and vitamins. The diet must now contain higher amounts of nutrients than required by a healthy child or adult person in order to prevent the development of protein malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies that will in turn easily lead to weakening of immunological functions. The purpose of the study was i) to analyse the nutrient composition of kapenta, and compare it to other animal products, and ii) to calculate the quantity of these products needed to cover the recommended dietary intake of several nutrients. Nutrient compositions of whole dried kapenta and Norwegian fish powder (fish protein concentrate type B) were found to be similar. It is shown that products made from whole fish are qualitatively superior to fish fillet and other animal products because they are much better sources of minerals and trace elements such as calcium, iron and zinc. They are also good sources of vitamin B12 and other bioactive substances such as membrane lipids, taurine and nucleic acids. Calculations of the improvements in nutrient intake if a maize-based diet is supplemented with minor amounts of a micronutrient- and protein-rich food like dried kapenta, or fish meal, was shown to give a balanced diet covering most of the nutrient requirements. It should be noted that patients suffering from chronic infectious diseases such as AIDS and tuberculosis have higher nutrient requirements (for protein, essential amino acids and several micronutrients) compared to healthy persons.Key words: Nutrition, children, maize, kapenta, fish-mea

Reducing GHG Emissions from Traditional Livestock Systems to Mitigate Changing Climate and Biodiversity

Climate change (CC) directly impacts the economy, ecosystems, water resources, weather events, health issues, desertification, sea level rise, and even political and social stability. The effects of CC affect different groups of societies differently. In Tanzania, the effects of CC have even acquired a gender dimension, whereby women are viewed as more vulnerable than men because of socioeconomic and historic barriers. CC is largely caused by anthropogenic activities, including those that increase the concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Recent findings indicate that the livestock sector is responsible for 18 % of GHG emissions measured in the CO2 equivalent. Moreover, some gases emitted by livestock have higher potential to warm the atmosphere than CO2 and have a very long atmospheric lifetime. Methane (CH4) has 23 times the global warming potential (GWP) of CO2, whereas nitrous oxide (N2O) has 296 times the GWP of CO2. It is now estimated that the atmospheric concentrations of CH4 and N2O are increasing at a rate of approximately 0.6 % and 0.25 % per year, respectively. Cattle may emit CH4 from enteric fermentation equivalent to 2–12 % of the ingested energy, whereas produced manure can emit N2O up to 1.25 % of its weight. The estimated total CH4 and N2O emissions from Tanzanian ruminants stand at 26.17 Gg and 0.57 Gg, respectively. In this paper, we first very briefly review emissions of GHGs from different livestock production systems in Tanzania with the view of identifying the main hot spots. Then, we concentrate on the available adaptation options and the limitations on the adoption of such adaptation options in Tanzania. Emission of these GHGs per unit product varies with the level of intensification, the types of livestock kept, and manure management. Intensification of livestock production reduces the size of the land required to sustain a livestock unit and frees up the land necessary for carbon sequestration. In Tanzania, such intensification could take the form of the early harvesting and storing forage for dry-season feeding. The advantage of this intervention is twofold: young harvests have higher digestibility and emit less CH4 when fed to ruminants than mature lignified forage; use of stored roughage in the dry season will reduce the desertification of rangeland and deforestation that occur when livestock search for pastureland. Dry-season supplementation of ruminants with energy and protein-rich diets will reduce CH4 emission. The chemical treatment of crops byproducts will increase the crops’ digestibility and reduce CH4 emission from ruminants. Crossbreds of indigenous and exotic breeds are more efficient converters of feed into products like meat and milk, with less GHG emitted per unit product. The use of manure for biogas production will reduce the emission of both CH4 and N2O into the atmosphere. Shifting from liquid to solid manure management has the potential to reduce CH4 emissions. Most of these interventions, however, are not cost neutral – enhancing awareness alone will not lead to their widespread adoption. In the absence of subsidies, the adoption of these interventions will depend on the relative cost of other options. Although some traditional livestock systems in Tanzania are already coping with the impact of CC, such efforts are handicapped by inadequate resources, poor coordination, and implementation of competing measures

Reducing GHG Emissions from Traditional Livestock Systems to Mitigate Changing Climate and Biodiversity

Climate change (CC) directly impacts the economy, ecosystems, water resources, weather events, health issues, desertification, sea level rise, and even political and social stability. The effects of CC affect different groups of societies differently. In Tanzania, the effects of CC have even acquired a gender dimension, whereby women are viewed as more vulnerable than men because of socioeconomic and historic barriers. CC is largely caused by anthropogenic activities, including those that increase the concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Recent findings indicate that the livestock sector is responsible for 18 % of GHG emissions measured in the CO2 equivalent. Moreover, some gases emitted by livestock have higher potential to warm the atmosphere than CO2 and have a very long atmospheric lifetime. Methane (CH4) has 23 times the global warming potential (GWP) of CO2, whereas nitrous oxide (N2O) has 296 times the GWP of CO2. It is now estimated that the atmospheric concentrations of CH4 and N2O are increasing at a rate of approximately 0.6 % and 0.25 % per year, respectively. Cattle may emit CH4 from enteric fermentation equivalent to 2–12 % of the ingested energy, whereas produced manure can emit N2O up to 1.25 % of its weight. The estimated total CH4 and N2O emissions from Tanzanian ruminants stand at 26.17 Gg and 0.57 Gg, respectively. In this paper, we first very briefly review emissions of GHGs from different livestock production systems in Tanzania with the view of identifying the main hot spots. Then, we concentrate on the available adaptation options and the limitations on the adoption of such adaptation options in Tanzania. Emission of these GHGs per unit product varies with the level of intensification, the types of livestock kept, and manure management. Intensification of livestock production reduces the size of the land required to sustain a livestock unit and frees up the land necessary for carbon sequestration. In Tanzania, such intensification could take the form of the early harvesting and storing forage for dry-season feeding. The advantage of this intervention is twofold: young harvests have higher digestibility and emit less CH4 when fed to ruminants than mature lignified forage; use of stored roughage in the dry season will reduce the desertification of rangeland and deforestation that occur when livestock search for pastureland. Dry-season supplementation of ruminants with energy and protein-rich diets will reduce CH4 emission. The chemical treatment of crops byproducts will increase the crops’ digestibility and reduce CH4 emission from ruminants. Crossbreds of indigenous and exotic breeds are more efficient converters of feed into products like meat and milk, with less GHG emitted per unit product. The use of manure for biogas production will reduce the emission of both CH4 and N2O into the atmosphere. Shifting from liquid to solid manure management has the potential to reduce CH4 emissions. Most of these interventions, however, are not cost neutral – enhancing awareness alone will not lead to their widespread adoption. In the absence of subsidies, the adoption of these interventions will depend on the relative cost of other options. Although some traditional livestock systems in Tanzania are already coping with the impact of CC, such efforts are handicapped by inadequate resources, poor coordination, and implementation of competing measures