Production of food nanomaterials by specialized equipment

In the past decade, there has been a great interest in using nanotechnology by different industries, including food, pharmaceutical, and beauty. Nanotechnology provides many advantages to produce functional compounds which tend to be delivered for desired properties, such as protection from the environment or food matrix, controlled release, and increased bioavailability and bioaccessibility (Muhammad et al., 2019, Sedaghat Doost et al., 2019b, Sedaghat Doost et al., 2018c). There is a variety of methods to prepare food nanomaterials. Specialized equipment is frequently employed for the production of efficient nano-delivery systems, which is the focus of this chapter; the basic principle of conventional and recent techniques, as well as their advantages and disadvantages are described

The Role of Auditing, Food Safety, and Food Quality Standards in the Food Industry: A Review

Food safety and quality audits are used widely in the food industry for various reasons (to evaluate management systems, obtain certifications to certain food safety and quality standards, assess the condition of premises and products, confirm legal compliance, and so on). Nowadays, the increased interest of consumers on food safety and quality matters, triggered mainly by recent food scandals, has enabled the public and private food sectors to develop a variety of food safety and quality standards. These standards have both advantages and disadvantages and their effectiveness depends on several factors such as the competency and skills of auditors and the standard used in each case. Although the industry continuously invests in developing and improving these systems, the number of foodborne outbreaks per year appears to be quite stable in both Europe and the United States. This may be an indication that additional measures and techniques or a different approach would be required to further improve the effectiveness of the food safety and quality management systems. This article examines the role of audits and food safety and quality assessment systems in the food industry, presenting the results of several studies and briefly describing the main food safety and quality standards currently used in Europe (with particular emphasis on the United Kingdom and Greece), the U.S., Australia–New Zealand, and Asia. © 2017 Institute of Food Technologists

Comparative and critical analysis of data from food safety and quality inspections carried out in food industries in Greece, the United Kingdom and the United States of America

This study aims at analyzing and critically evaluating results of audits carried out in three countries (Greece, United Kingdom, and USA) in order to detect the processes that presented most deviations from the standards or the legislation, and to therefore allow the conduction of more targeted audits. Such an approach could result in improvements in the conditions of the plants, and the optimization of the audit process as well the reduction of relevant costs. It could also serve as a basis for improving food safety and quality standards as well as the relevant legislation. In the case of Greece, audit reports conducted in 100 companies were analyzed. The standards audited were the following: ΕΛΟΤ ΕΝ ISO 9001(2000), ΕΛΟΤ 1416, ΕΛΟΤ ΕΝ ISO 22000(2005) and ΕΛΟΤ ΕΝ ISO 9001(2008), as well as their combinations. All data extracted from these audits were categorized in accordance with the corresponding standards, the activities of each company, the type of audits, the total number of employees in each company and the number of employees in each company's production department. In the case of the United Kingdom, the audit reports of 150 audits conducted in the country by the FSA in meat/poultry processing facilities and slaughterhouses, as well as by ASC and Marine Scotland in British aquaculture facilities, were analyzed. In the case of USA, the deviations recorded in 148 warning letters sent by FDA to fish and seafood companies and 222 warning letters sent to meat and dairy companies were analyzed. The review of the data was carried out based on the year the warning letters were issued, the activities of each company and the subjects of the deviations. The results of the study showed that in the case of Greece, the highest mean percentage of major non-conformities per audit (86.5%) was recorded in companies that produced egg products, followed by companies producing dairy (28,6%), meat (28,6%) and other products (6,8%). In contrast, the lowest mean percentage of major non-conformities per audit was recorded in companies producing fish products (5,45%). With regards to the minor non-conformities, the highest mean percentage per audit was recorded in companies producing egg products (45,9%), followed by companies producing fish (21,23%) and other products (21,23%).In the case of the United Kingdom, the highest average percentage of major non-conformities was recorded in slaughterhouses (≈58%). The same pattern was shown when minor non-conformities were considered, with slaughterhouses presenting the highest average number in comparison to other facilities. A comparison of the fish and meat/dairy/egg companies of the UK showed that the total number of non-conformities between them was significantly different (p<0,01), being significantly higher (by 2.77) in meat and dairy processing companies than the corresponding number of non-conformities recorded in companies handling fish and seafood. In the case of USA, most deviations were recorded during all years in relation to the title 123 of code 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations, that covers the general conditions for the production of fish and seafood and includes the implementation of good production practices, HACCP and basic prerequisites (training of staff, disinfection, corrective actions, etc). A significant difference was found in the total number of non-conformities in relation to the activities of the companies, with the total number of nonconformities being significantly higher (by 0.56) in meat/dairy companies in comparison to companies handling fish and seafood. The results extracted in this study indicate that the implementation of more than one standard at the same time, or the use of stricter standards or standards covering more requirements, increases the possibility of non-conformities appearing. In the case of Greece, non-conformities mainly appeared in fields requiring continuous observation or significant resources, while less non-conformities appeared in companies handling fish and seafood compared to the rest. In the case of United Kingdom, slaughterhouses presented more non-conformities than the rest of the companies handling products of animal origin, while significantly less non-conformities appeared in companies handling fish and seafood. A comparison of the three countries showed that generally United Kingdom and USA did not significantly differ in the number of non-conformities, while Greece had a significantly higher number.Η μελέτη αυτή έχει ως σκοπό την ανάλυση και κριτική αξιολόγηση στοιχείων επιθεωρήσεων που έλαβαν χώρα σε τρεις χώρες (Ελλάδα, Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο και ΗΠΑ) με σκοπό να εντοπιστούν τα αντικείμενα ή διαδικασίες τα οποία εμφάνισαν τις περισσότερες αποκλίσεις από τα πρότυπα ή τη νομοθεσία, έτσι ώστε να επιτραπεί η πραγματοποίηση πιο στοχευμένων επιθεωρήσεων. Μια τέτοια προσέγγιση θα μπορούσε να επιφέρει τη βελτίωση των συνθηκών στις εγκαταστάσεις, την βελτιστοποίηση της διαδικασίας της επιθεώρησης και τη μείωση του σχετικού κόστους. Θα μπορούσε επίσης να λειτουργήσει ως μια βάση για την βελτίωση των προτύπων ασφάλειας και ποιότητας αλλά και της σχετικής νομοθεσίας. Στην περίπτωση της Ελλάδας, αναλύθηκαν οι εκθέσεις επιθεωρήσεων, που πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε 100 εταιρείες. Τα πρότυπα που επιθεωρήθηκαν ήταν τα ακόλουθα: ΕΛΟΤ ΕΝ ISO 9001(2000), ΕΛΟΤ 1416, ΕΛΟΤ ΕΝ ISO 22000(2005) και ΕΛΟΤ ΕΝ ISO 9001(2008), και οι συνδυασμοί τους. Όλα τα δεδομένα που εξήχθησαν από τις επιθεωρήσεις κατηγοριοποιήθηκαν σύμφωνα με τα αντίστοιχα πρότυπα, τη δραστηριότητα των εταιρειών, τον τύπο των επιθεωρήσεων, τον αριθμό των εργαζομένων σε κάθε εταιρεία και τον αριθμό των εργαζομένων στο τμήμα παραγωγής της κάθε εταιρείας. Στην περίπτωση του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου αναλύθηκαν οι εκθέσεις 150 επιθεωρήσεων που διεξήχθησαν στο Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο από την FSA σε εταιρείες επεξεργασίας κρέατος/πουλερικών και σφαγεία, καθώς και από ΑSC και τη Marine Scotland σε βρετανικές ιχθυοκαλλιέργειες. Στην περίπτωση των ΗΠΑ μελετήθηκαν οι αποκλίσεις που καταγράφηκαν σε 148 προειδοποιητικά γράμματα που στάλθηκαν από τον FDA σε εταιρείες ψαριών και θαλασσινών και 222 προειδοποιητικά γράμματα που στάλθηκαν σε εταιρείες κρέατος και γαλακτοκομικών. Η ανασκόπηση των δεδομένων πραγματοποιήθηκε με βάση το έτος της έκδοσης των προειδοποιητικών γραμμάτων, το αντικείμενο των εταιρειών και τα αντικείμενα στα οποία ενέπιπταν οι αποκλίσεις που καταγράφηκαν. Τα αποτελέσματα της μελέτης έδειξαν πως στην περίπτωση της Ελλάδας το υψηλότερο μέσο ποσοστό κύριων μη-συμμορφώσεων ανά επιθεώρηση (30,45%) καταγράφηκε σε εταιρείες που παρήγαγαν προϊόντα αυγού, ενώ ακολουθούν οι εταιρείες γαλακτοκομικών (28,6%), κρέατος (28,6%), και λοιπών προϊόντων (6,8%). Σε αντίθεση, το μικρότερο μέσο ποσοστό κύριων μη-συμμορφώσεων ανά επιθεώρηση παρατηρήθηκε σε επιθεωρήσεις εταιρειών που παρήγαγαν προϊόντα ιχθυηρών (5,45%). Όσον αφορά τις δευτερεύουσες μη-συμμορφώσεις, το υψηλότερο μέσο ποσοστό ανά εταιρεία παρατηρήθηκε σε εταιρείες που παρήγαγαν προϊόντα αυγού (45,9%), ενώ ακολουθούν οι εταιρείες παραγωγής ιχθυηρών (21,23%) και λοιπών προϊόντων (21,23%). Οι μη-συμμορφώσεις διαχωρίστηκαν στην περίπτωση της Ελλάδας σε κύριες και δευτερεύουσες με βάση τη μεθοδολογία που ακολουθείται στα πρότυπα ISO 9001/ISO 22000, και συγκεκριμένα, ως κύρια ορίζεται η μη συμμόρφωση που οδηγεί σε αποτυχία του συστήματος να επιτύχει τα επιδιωκόμενα αποτελέσματα, και ως δευτερεύουσα η μη συμμόρφωση που δεν οδηγεί (άμεσα) σε αποτυχία του συστήματος να επιτύχει τα επιδιωκόμενα αποτελέσματα. Στην περίπτωση του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου, το υψηλότερο μέσο ποσοστό κύριων μη-συμμορφώσεων βρέθηκε στην περίπτωση των σφαγείων (≈58%). Το ίδιο μοτίβο εμφανίστηκε στην περίπτωση των δευτερευουσών μη-συμμορφώσεων με τα σφαγεία να εμφανίζουν τον υψηλότερο μέσο αριθμό σε σύγκριση με άλλα είδη εγκαταστάσεων. Συγκρίνοντας τις εταιρείες ιχθυηρών και κρέατος/γαλακτοκομικών/αυγών του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου αποδείχθηκε πως ο ολικός αριθμός μη-συμμορφώσεων διέφερε σημαντικά (p<0,01) σε σχέση με τον τύπο των εταιρειών, με τον αριθμό των μη-συμμορφώσεων που καταγράφηκαν σε εταιρείες κρέατος και γαλακτοκομικών να είναι σημαντικά υψηλότερος (κατά 2,77) σε σχέση με τον αντίστοιχο αριθμό μη-συμμορφώσεων που καταγράφηκαν σε εταιρείες ιχθυηρών. Στην περίπτωση των ΗΠΑ, οι περισσότερες αποκλίσεις καταγράφονταν σταθερά καθόλα τα έτη σε σχέση με τον τίτλο 123 του κωδικό 21 του Οµοσπονδιακού Μητρώου των ΗΠΑ που αναφέρεται στις γενικές προϋποθέσεις για την παραγωγή ψαριών και θαλασσινών και συμπεριλαμβάνει την εφαρμογή στη βιομηχανία καλών πρακτικών παραγωγής, HACCP και βασικών προαπαιτούμενων προγραμμάτων (εκπαίδευση προσωπικού, κράτηση αρχείων απολύμανση, διορθωτικές ενέργειες και άλλα). Στην περίπτωση των ΗΠΑ, σημαντική διαφορά παρατηρήθηκε στον ολικό αριθμό των μη-συμμορφώσεων σε σχέση με τον τύπο των εταιρειών, με τον ολικό αριθμό των μη-συμμορφώσεων σε εταιρείες κρέατος και γαλακτοκομικών να είναι σημαντικά υψηλότερος (κατά 0,56) σε σχέση με τον αντίστοιχο αριθμό μη-συμμορφώσεων σε εταιρείες ιχθυηρών. Από την ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων φάνηκε πως η εφαρμογή περισσοτέρων του ενός προτύπων ταυτοχρόνως ή η εφαρμογή πιο αυστηρών προτύπων ή προτύπων που καλύπτουν περισσότερες απαιτήσεις αυξάνει την πιθανότητα εμφάνισης περισσότερων μη συμμορφώσεων. Στην περίπτωση της Ελλάδας οι μη συμμορφώσεις εμφανίστηκαν κυρίως σε πεδία που απαιτούν διαρκή παρακολούθηση ή σημαντικούς πόρους, ενώ πολύ λιγότερες μη συμμορφώσεις εμφανίστηκαν σε εταιρείες ιχθυηρών σε σχέση με τις λοιπές εταιρείες. Στην περίπτωση του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου φάνηκε πως τα σφαγεία εμφάνισαν περισσότερες μη συμμορφώσεις από τις λοιπές εταιρείες κρέατος, ενώ πολύ λιγότερες μη συμμορφώσεις εμφανίστηκαν σε εταιρείες ιχθυηρών σε σχέση με τις λοιπές εταιρείες. Συγκρίνοντας τις τρεις χώρες, φάνηκε πως γενικά οι ΗΠΑ και το Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο δεν διέφεραν σημαντικά στον αριθμό των μη-συμμορφώσεων, ενώ η Ελλάδα, εμφάνισε σημαντικά περισσότερες μη συμμορφώσεις

Audit results of UK meat companies – critical analysis

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyze the results of several food safety audits carried out by the Food Standards Agency in meat and poultry-processing companies and slaughterhouses in the UK and audits in aquacultures carried out by the Aquaculture Stewardship Council and the Marine Scotland. Design/methodology/approach: Specifically, both a quantitative and a qualitative review were carried out. Findings: It was revealed that in meat and poultry companies, the highest average proportion of major non-conformities (MNCs) within the total number of companies was recorded in slaughterhouses, while based on the type of product, the corresponding percentage of MNCs was found in poultry companies. Both in meat/poultry companies and aquacultures, small-sized companies presented the highest average percentage of MNCs. It was also revealed that a very high percentage of MNCs and minor non-conformities were recorded in relation to “record keeping.” Research limitations/implications: The limitations of the present study can be summarized into the fact that although a high number of audit reports were taken into account, and record keeping and past actions were reviewed as part of the audits, the audit represents only a snapshot in time and can heavily depend on the skills of the auditors. Originality/value: To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there is very limited literature available that analyzes the results of audits and looks for trends in the food industry in the UK. The conclusions of this study can be of significant value to both the auditors and the industry by enabling a more targeted approach in the conduction of audits. © 2017, © Emerald Publishing Limited

A critical analysis of ISO audits results

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to summarize and analyse the results of several food quality and safety audits (ISO 9001, ISO 22000, ELOT 1416 and Codex Alimetarius) carried out in Greek food companies processing products of animal origin. Design/methodology/approachSpecifically, both a quantitative and a qualitative review of the results were carried out. FindingsIt was revealed that the biggest ratio of non-conformities was recorded within the frame of ELOT 1416 standard (Greek scheme for the certification of HACCP Management Systems), or ELOT 1416 and ISO 9001 where a combination of standards was used. The highest ratio of observations was recorded against ELOT 1416 when used in combination with ISO 9001. The highest average of non-conformities per audit was recorded in meat (red meat and poultry) companies. With regards to the observations recorded, the highest average per audit was recorded in companies processing eggs. Considering the number of workers, the highest average of non-conformities per audit was observed in small companies. Research limitations/implicationsThe limitations of the present study can be summarized into the fact that although a high number of audit reports were taken into account, an audit is an observation of the condition of a company on the day of the audit and the results can also be highly dependent on the skills of the auditors. Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge this is the first paper that analyses a high number of audit reports from Greek food companies and its conclusions can be of significant value to both the auditors and the industry enabling a more focused approach in the conduction of audits and implementation of the standards. © 2016, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Use of ultrasounds in the food industry–Methods and effects on quality, safety, and organoleptic characteristics of foods: A review

The use of ultrasounds has recently gained significant interest in the food industry mainly due to the new trends of consumers toward functional foods. Offering several advantages, this form of energy can be applied for the improvement of qualitative characteristics of high-quality foods as well as for assuring safety of a vast variety of foodstuffs, and at the same time minimizing any negative effects of the sensory characteristics of foods. Furthermore, the non-destructive nature of this technology offers several opportunities for the compositional analysis of foods. However, further research is required for the improvement of related techniques and the reduction of application costs in order to render this technology efficient for industrial use. This review paper covers the main applications of ultrasounds as well as several advantages of the use of the technology in combination with conventional techniques. The effects of ultrasounds on the characteristics, microbial safety, and quality of several foods are also detailed © 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Food waste generation and bio-valorization

[No abstract available

Smoking of Fish and Seafood: History, Methods and Effects on Physical, Nutritional and Microbiological Properties

Smoking technology is increasingly used nowadays to impart particular organoleptic characteristics to fishes and as a means of maintaining and extending the shelf-life of these perishable products. The antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of smoking have been recently studied in depth, and various methods of smoking are applied worldwide, focusing mainly on species groups such as salmon and other salted fish and seafood. Despite the obvious advantages of the process, there are also a number of hazards related to the consumption of smoked products. One of the most representative examples is the outbreak of various cancers common in countries such as Nigeria and Baltic countries due to the high content of foods in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons produced as a by-product of the process. Furthermore, many studies have demonstrated that smoking with pyrolytic flue gases causes environmental pollution. These facts can have a significant impact on the acceptance of these products by consumers. In this review article, the objective is to describe synoptically the general methods of fish smoking, to report both advantages and disadvantages resulting from these methods, to present safety aspects of smoking both with regard to microbiological and chemical issues and to provide some representative examples of smoked fish applications both in tabular and figural form

Membrane Processing Technology in the Food Industry: Food Processing, Wastewater Treatment, and Effects on Physical, Microbiological, Organoleptic, and Nutritional Properties of Foods

Membrane processing technology (MPT) is increasingly used nowadays in a wide range of applications (demineralization, desalination, stabilization, separation, deacidification, reduction of microbial load, purification, etc.) in food industries. The most frequently applied techniques are electrodialysis (ED), reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), and microfiltration (MF). Several membrane characteristics, such as pore size, flow properties, and the applied hydraulic pressure mainly determine membranes' potential uses. In this review paper the basic membrane techniques, their potential applications in a large number of fields and products towards the food industry, the main advantages and disadvantages of these methods, fouling phenomena as well as their effects on the organoleptic, qualitative, and nutritional value of foods are synoptically described. Some representative examples of traditional and modern membrane applications both in tabular and figural form are also provided

Jerusalem Artichoke: An Emerging Feedstock for Bioethanol Production

In recent year, sugar- and starch-based feedstocks have not been sustainable for biorefinery due to the fact that their cultivation for food use covers the biggest percentage of production. Although lignocellulosic biomass, mainly in the form of agricultural residues, is extensively available, its conversion and utilization as biorefinery (biofuels) is still not financially competitive. One solution to this problem is the development of an alternative energy crop/tuber crop, such as the Jerusalem artichoke (JA) (Helianthus tuberosus L.). JA is native to North America and recently has been recognized as a promising biomass for the production of biofuel. The use of its tubers offers numerous benefits over conventional crops, including low input cultivation, high crop yield, ability to grow in a wide range of climates and soil conditions and high tolerance to environmental stresses, such as drought, salinity, pest, and plant diseases. Furthermore, the tubers are highly rich in inulin, which can be converted to fermentable sugars through hydrolysis. This chapter provides an overview of the potential uses of JA for the production of biofuels as well as an overview of the relevant production technologies. © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved