A field study evaluating the humoral immune response in Mongolian sheep vaccinated against sheeppox virus

Sheeppox is a transboundary disease of sheep caused by infection with the capripoxvirus sheeppox virus (SPPV). Sheeppox is found in Africa, the Middle East and Asia and is characterised by fever, multifocal cutaneous raised lesions, and death, with substantial negative impact on affected flocks. Vaccination with live attenuated capripoxvirus (CPPV) strains is an effective and widely used means of controlling sheeppox outbreaks, however there are few reports of post-vaccination field surveillance studies of sheeppox. This study used a commercially available ELISA and a fluorescence-based neutralisation assay (FVNT) to examine quantitative and temporal features of the humoral response of sheep vaccinated with a live attenuated CPPV strain in Mongolia. 400 samples were tested using the ELISA, and a subset of 45 also tested with the FVNT. There was substantial agreement between the FVNT and ELISA tests. Antibodies to CPPV were detected between 40 and 262 days post vaccination. There was no significant difference between serological status (positive / negative) and sex or age, however an inverse correlation was found between the length of time since vaccination and serological status. Animals between 90 and 180 days post-vaccination were more likely to be positive than animals greater than 180 days post vaccination. This data provides temporal parameters to consider when planning sheeppox post-vaccination monitoring programmes. In summary, our results show a commercial CPPV ELISA kit is a robust and reliable assay for use in resource-restricted low and low-middle income countries for post CPPV vaccination surveillance on a regional or national level.The attached .xls file contains all raw data used in the associated publication, " A comparative serological field study evaluating the humoral immune response in Mongolian sheep vaccinated against sheeppox virus." The dataset identifies all individual sheep by a unique identification number (ID_num). Each unique ID_num is associated with relevant metadata: Province name, Sum name, herder name coded (Herded_Id), animal species, age of the animal, in years, when sampled (Age), sex of the animal "F" or "M" (Sex), date when the animal was sampled (Date_sample_collected), date when the animal was vaccinated for sheeppox according to the vaccination records (Date_vaccinated_raw data), and for samples in which the exact date of vaccination was not available and a range of potential time was given, the midpoint date within this range (Date_vaccinated_midpoint), animals for which vaccination date was not available receive an "NA" value; time from vaccination to sampled in days (Time_from_vaccinated_midpoint); %S/P values for the ELISA test conducted in the Mongolia lab (Ag_ELISA_SCVL_OD_SP) and %S/P values for the ELISA test conducted in the UK lab (Ag_ELISA_TPI_OD_SP), results from the ELISA test classified as binary variable "Positive" or "Negative" (Ag_ELISA_SCVL_bin and Ag_ELISA_TPI_bin); titres from the fluorescence-based neutralisation assay (FVNT Titre) and results from the FVNT test classified as binary variable ("Positive" or "Negative"), all animals that were not tested by FVNT receive an "NA" value in these columns. Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/I/00007031Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/E/I/00007036Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/E/I/00007037Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/I/00007039Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/J004324/1Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/D/20002173Funding provided by: Horizon 2020Crossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100007601Award Number: 773701Funding provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations*Crossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: TCP/MON/3603Funding provided by: IdVet*Crossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: Funding provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsCrossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: TCP/MON/3603Funding provided by: IdVetCrossref Funder Registry ID:Blood samples from sheep and associated data were collected as part of the post-vaccination surveillance programme for sheeppox implemented by the Mongolian General Authority for Veterinary Services (GAVS) in 2016

Socio-economic impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease outbreaks and control measures:An analysis of Mongolian outbreaks in 2017

Mongolia is a large landlocked country in central Asia and has one of the highest per capita livestock ratios in the world. During 2017 reported Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in Mongolia increased considerably, prompting widespread disease control measures. This study estimates the socio‐economic impact of FMD and subsequent control measures on Mongolian herders. The analysis encompassed quantification of the impact on subsistence farmers’ livelihoods and food security and estimation of the national level gross losses due to reaction and expenditure during 2017. Data were collected from 112 herders across eight Provinces that reported disease. Seventy of these herders had cases of FMD, while 42 did not have FMD in their animals but were within quarantine zones. Overall, 86/112 herders reported not drinking milk for a period of time and 38/112 reduced their meat consumption. Furthermore, 55 herders (49.1%) had to borrow money to buy food, medicines and/or pay bills or bank loans. Among herders with FMD cases, the median attack rate was 31.7%, 3.8% and 0.59% in cattle, sheep and goats respectively, with important differences across Provinces. Herders with clinical cases before the winter had higher odds of reporting a reduction in their meat consumption. National level gross losses due to FMD in 2017 were estimated using government data. The estimate of gross economic loss was 18.4 billion Mongolian‐tugriks (US$7.35 million) which equates to approximately 0.65% of the Mongolian GDP. The FMD outbreaks combined with current control measures has negatively impacted herders’ livelihoods (including herders with and without cases of FMD) which is likely to reduce stakeholder advocacy. Possible strategies that could be employed to ameliorate the negative effects of the current control policy were identified. The findings and approach are relevant to other FMD endemic regions aiming to control the disease

Outbreak of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus among Criticially Endangered Mongolian Saiga and Other Wild Ungulates, Mongolia, 2016-2017

The 2016–2017 introduction of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) into livestock in Mongolia was followed by mass mortality of the critically endangered Mongolian saiga antelope and other rare wild ungulates. To assess the nature and population effects of this outbreak among wild ungulates, we collected clinical, histopathologic, epidemiologic, and ecological evidence. Molecular characterization confirmed that the causative agent was PPRV lineage IV. The spatiotemporal patterns of cases among wildlife were similar to those among livestock affected by the PPRV outbreak, suggesting spillover of virus from livestock at multiple locations and time points and subsequent spread among wild ungulates. Estimates of saiga abundance suggested a population decline of 80%, raising substantial concerns for the species’ survival. Consideration of the entire ungulate community (wild and domestic) is essential for elucidating the epidemiology of PPRV in Mongolia, addressing the threats to wild ungulate conservation, and achieving global PPRV eradication

African Swine Fever in Mongolia: Course of the Epidemic and Applied Control Measures

African swine fever (ASF) is spreading rapidly in Asia and was confirmed in Mongolia on 10 January 2019. Following the outbreak confirmation, a state emergency committee was established with representation from municipal authorities and other relevant authorities including the General Authority for Veterinary Services, National Emergency Management Agency, General Agency for Specialized Inspection, and the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. The committee provided recommendations and coordinated closely with the State Central Veterinary Laboratory to ensure quick outbreak investigation and response. In addition to outbreak investigations, sampling took place at farms and food premises and suggests a link between the outbreaks and swill feeding practices among backyard pig farmers. Upon government request, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) deployed an expert team to assist in identifying risk factors for the disease spread and provide recommendations as how to improve disease prevention and response. Following the control measures from the involved agencies, the epidemic was successfully controlled and declared over on 11 April 2019. In total, the epidemic affected 83 pig farming households and led to a total of 2862 dead or culled pigs in eleven districts of seven provinces in Mongolia

Comparison of vaccination schedules for foot-and-mouth disease among cattle and sheep in Mongolia

Vaccines are a critical tool for the control strategy for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Mongolia where sporadic outbreaks regularly occur. A two-dose primary vaccination course is recommended for most commercial vaccines though this can be logistically challenging to deliver among nomadic pastoralist systems which predominate in the country. Although there is evidence that very high potency vaccines can provide prolonged duration of immunity, this has not been demonstrated under field conditions using commercially available vaccines. This study compared neutralizing titres to a O/ME-SA/Panasia strain over a 6-month period following either a two-dose primary course or a single double-dose vaccination among Mongolian sheep and cattle using a 6.0 PD50 vaccine. Titers were not significantly different between groups except in sheep at six-months post vaccination when the single double-dose group had significantly lower titers. These results indicate the single double-dose regimen may be a cost-effective approach for vaccination campaigns supporting FMD control in Mongolia

Genetic and antigenic characterization of H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses isolated from migratory waterfowl in Mongolia from 2017 to 2019

The circulation of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of various subtypes (e.g., H5N1, H5N6, H5N8, and H7N9) in poultry remains a global concern for animal and public health. Migratory waterfowls play important roles in the transmission of these viruses across countries. To monitor virus spread by wild birds, active surveillance for avian influenza in migratory waterfowl was conducted in Mongolia from 2015 to 2019. In total, 5000 fecal samples were collected from lakesides in central Mongolia, and 167 influenza A viruses were isolated. Two H5N3, four H7N3, and two H7N7 viruses were characterized in this study. The amino acid sequence at hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site of those isolates suggested low pathogenicity in chickens. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all H5 and H7 viruses were closely related to recent H5 and H7 low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) isolated from wild birds in Asia and Europe. Antigenicity of H7Nx was similar to those of typical non-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (AIVs). While HPAIVs or A/Anhui/1/2013 (H7N9)-related LPAIVs were not detected in migratory waterfowl in Mongolia, sporadic introductions of AIVs including H5 and H7 viruses into Mongolia through the wild bird migration were identified. Thus, continued monitoring of H5 and H7 AIVs in both domestic and wild birds is needed for the early detection of HPAIVs spread into the country

Ecological characterization of 175 low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses isolated from wild birds in Mongolia, 2009-2013 and 2016-2018.

BACKGROUND: Since 2005, highly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 viruses have spread from Asia worldwide, infecting poultry, humans and wild birds. Subsequently, global interest in avian influenza (AI) surveillance increased. OBJECTIVES: Mongolia presents an opportunity to study viruses in wild birds because the country has very low densities of domestic poultry and supports large concentrations of migratory water birds. METHODS: We conducted AI surveillance in Mongolia over two time periods, 2009-2013 and 2016-2018, utilizing environmental fecal sampling. Fresh fecal samples were collected from water bird congregation sites. Hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) subtypes of positive samples were identified through viral isolation or molecular assays, with pathogenicity determined by HA subtype or sequencing the HA cleavage site. RESULTS: A total of 10,222 samples were collected. Of these, 7,025 fecal samples were collected from 2009 to 2013, and 3,197 fecal samples were collected from 2016 to 2018. Testing revealed 175 (1.7%) positive samples for low-pathogenicity influenza A, including 118 samples from 2009 to 2013 (1.7%) and 57 samples from 2016 to 2018 (1.8%). HA and NA subtyping of all positives identified 11 subtypes of HA and nine subtypes of NA in 29 different combinations. Within periods, viruses were detected more frequently during the fall season than in the early summer. CONCLUSION: Mongolias critical wild bird habitat is positioned as a crossroad of multiple migratory flyways. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of using an affordable environmental fecal sampling approach for AI surveillance and contributes to understanding the prevalence and ecology of low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses in this important location, where birds from multiple flyways mix