Eliciting Sustained Mental Effort Using the Toulouse N-Back Task: Prefrontal Cortex and Pupillary Responses

In safety-critical environments such as piloting or air-traffic control, the study of mental overload is crucial to further reduce accident rates. However, researchers face the complexity of inducing an important amount of mental effort in laboratory conditions. Therefore, we designed a novel paradigm, named “Toulouse N-back Task” (TNT), combining the classical n-back task with a mathematical processing to replicate the multidimensional sustained high mental workload (MW) existing in many complex occupations. Instead of memorizing and comparing unique items, as in classical n-back task, participants have to memorize and to compare the results of mathematics operations. Twenty partic-ipants were tested with the TNT under three load factors (n = 0, 1, or 2) with functional Near-InfraRed Spectroscopy (fNIRS) and pupillary measurements. The results revealed that higher difficulty degraded the cognitive performance together with increased prefrontal oxygenation and an increase in pupil diameter. Hence, hemodynamic responses and pupil diameter were sensitive to different levels of TNT’s difficulty. This paradigm could serve as a viable alternative to the classical n-back task and enable the progressive increase of the difficulty, for example, to test “high performer” individuals

The diagnosticity of psychophysiological signatures: Can we disentangle mental workload from acute stress with ECG and fNIRS?

The ability to identify reliable and sensitive physiological signatures of psychological dimensions is key to developing intelligent adaptive systems that may in turn help to mitigate human error in complex operations. The challenge of this endeavor lies with diagnosticity. Despite different underlying causes, the physiological correlates of workload and acute psychological stress manifest in rather similar ways and can be easily confounded. The current work aimed to build a diagnostic model of mental state through the simultaneous classification of mental workload (varied through three levels of the n-back task) and acute stress (the presence/absence of aversive sounds) with machine learning. Using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electrocardiography (ECG), the model's classifiers was above-chance to disentangle variations of mental workload from variations of acute stress. Both ECG and fNIRS could predict mental workload level, the best accuracy resulted from the two measures in combination. Stress level could not be accurately diagnosed through ECG alone, only with fNIRS or ECG and fNIRS combined. Individual calibration may be important since stress classification was more accurate for those with higher subjective state anxiety, perhaps due to a greater sensitivity to stress. Mental workload and stress were both better classified with activity in lateral prefrontal regions of the cortex than the medial areas, and the HbO2 signal generally lead to better classification than HHB. The current model represents a step forward to finely discriminate different mental states despite their rather analog physiological correlates

Application de la spectroscopie proche infrarouge dans la discrimination de la charge de travail.

Daily behavior requires taking into account some information and actions planning which may seem trivial for us. However, it is the fruit of a complex and sophisticated processing from the brain. The cerebral processes underlie cognitive and motor functions in humans. In order to record in situ the temporal evolution of cerebral signals reflecting our behavior during cognitive and/or sensorimotor tasks, different non-invasive methods from Neuroergonomics could be used. Among the available functional neuroimaging methods, the near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) allowing indirectly to measure cortical activity (ie, changes in hemodynamic response) appears relevant to appreciate continuously cortical activity. In this thesis, using NIRS, we were interested in highlighting the correlates between cortical activity (frontal lobe) and the level of stimulation induced by workload during cognitive and/or motor tasks at sub-maximal efforts and variable difficulties. Three studies were conducted. The results indicate that the hemodynamic activity changes by NIRS depend on the workload. The cortical activity is measurable at a sub-maximal intensity for cognitive and/or motor tasks, as long as the signal analysis can discriminate low to moderate loads. This work has revealed the sensitivity and usefulness of NIRS in workload application.Notre comportement au quotidien nécessite la prise en compte d'informations et l'élaboration d'actions qui peuvent nous paraître banales. Il est cependant le fruit d'un traitement élaboré et complexe de la part de notre cerveau. Ce traitement cérébral est à la base des fonctions cognitives et motrices chez l'homme. Si nous voulions enregistrer in situ l'évolution temporelle des signaux cérébraux traduisant notre comportement lors de tâches cognitives et/ou sensori-motrices, nos choix se porteraient sur l'utilisation de méthodes non-invasives utilisées en neuroergonomie. Parmi les méthodes actuellement disponibles en neuroimagerie fonctionnelle, la spectroscopie proche infrarouge (NIRS) quantifiant indirectement l'activité corticale (i.e., modification de la réponse hémodynamique) apparaît la plus pertinente quant à l'appréciation de l'activité corticale en continu. Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés, en exploitant la NIRS, à mettre en évidence les corrélats entre l'activité corticale (lobe frontal) et le niveau de sollicitation engendré par des charges de travail dans des tâches cognitives et/ou motrices à des intensités sous-maximales et de difficultés variables. Trois études ont été menées, dont les résultats montrent que l'activité hémodynamique mesurée par NIRS varie en fonction de la charge de travail. L'activité corticale est estimable à une intensité d'effort sous-maximale pour des tâches cognitives et/ou motrices, à condition que l'analyse des signaux soit suffisamment discriminante pour des sollicitations faibles à modérées. Ce travail a révélé la sensibilité et l'utilité de la NIRS dans l'exploration de la charge de travail

Driscriminating workload using functional near infrared spectroscopy

Notre comportement au quotidien nécessite la prise en compte d'informations et l'élaboration d'actions qui peuvent nous paraître banales. Il est cependant le fruit d'un traitement élaboré et complexe de la part de notre cerveau. Ce traitement cérébral est à la base des fonctions cognitives et motrices chez l'homme. Si nous voulions enregistrer in situ l'évolution temporelle des signaux cérébraux traduisant notre comportement lors de tâches cognitives et/ou sensori-motrices, nos choix se porteraient sur l'utilisation de méthodes non-invasives utilisées en neuro-ergonomie. Parmi les méthodes actuellement disponibles en neuro-imagerie fonctionnelle, la spectroscopie proche infrarouge (NIRS) quantifiant indirectement l'activité corticale (i.e., modification de la réponse hémodynamique) apparaît la plus pertinente quant à l'appréciation de l'activité corticale en continu. Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés, en exploitant la NIRS, à mettre en évidence les corrélats entre l'activité corticale (lobe frontal) et le niveau de sollicitation engendré par des charges de travail dans des tâches cognitives et/ou motrices à des intensités sous-maximales et de difficultés variables. Trois études ont été menées, dont les résultats montrent que l'activité hémodynamique mesurée par NIRS varie en fonction de la charge de travail. L'activité corticale est estimable à une intensité d'effort sous-maximale pour des tâches cognitives et/ou motrices, à condition que l'analyse des signaux soit suffisamment discriminante pour des sollicitations faibles à modérées. Ce travail a révélé la sensibilité et l'utilité de la NIRS dans l'exploration de la charge de travail.Daily behavior requires taking into account some information and actions planning which may seem trivial for us. However, it is the fruit of a complex and sophisticated processing from the brain. The cerebral processes underlie cognitive and motor functions in humans. In order to record in situ the temporal evolution of cerebral signals reflecting our behavior during cognitive and/or sensorimotor tasks, different non-invasive methods from Neuroergonomics could be used. Among the available functional neuroimaging methods, the near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) allowing indirectly to measure cortical activity (ie, changes in hemodynamic response) appears relevant to appreciate continuously cortical activity.In this thesis, using NIRS, we were interested in highlighting the correlates between cortical activity (frontal lobe) and the level of stimulation induced by workload during cognitive and/or motor tasks at sub-maximal efforts and variable difficulties. Three studies were conducted. The results indicate that the hemodynamic activity changes by NIRS depend on the workload. The cortical activity is measurable at a sub-maximal intensity for cognitive and/or motor tasks, as long as the signal analysis can discriminate low to moderate loads. This work has revealed the sensitivity and usefulness of NIRS in workload application

Application de la spectroscopie proche infrarouge dans la discrimination de la charge de travail.

Daily behavior requires taking into account some information and actions planning which may seem trivial for us. However, it is the fruit of a complex and sophisticated processing from the brain. The cerebral processes underlie cognitive and motor functions in humans. In order to record in situ the temporal evolution of cerebral signals reflecting our behavior during cognitive and/or sensorimotor tasks, different non-invasive methods from Neuroergonomics could be used. Among the available functional neuroimaging methods, the near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) allowing indirectly to measure cortical activity (ie, changes in hemodynamic response) appears relevant to appreciate continuously cortical activity. In this thesis, using NIRS, we were interested in highlighting the correlates between cortical activity (frontal lobe) and the level of stimulation induced by workload during cognitive and/or motor tasks at sub-maximal efforts and variable difficulties. Three studies were conducted. The results indicate that the hemodynamic activity changes by NIRS depend on the workload. The cortical activity is measurable at a sub-maximal intensity for cognitive and/or motor tasks, as long as the signal analysis can discriminate low to moderate loads. This work has revealed the sensitivity and usefulness of NIRS in workload application.Notre comportement au quotidien nécessite la prise en compte d'informations et l'élaboration d'actions qui peuvent nous paraître banales. Il est cependant le fruit d'un traitement élaboré et complexe de la part de notre cerveau. Ce traitement cérébral est à la base des fonctions cognitives et motrices chez l'homme. Si nous voulions enregistrer in situ l'évolution temporelle des signaux cérébraux traduisant notre comportement lors de tâches cognitives et/ou sensori-motrices, nos choix se porteraient sur l'utilisation de méthodes non-invasives utilisées en neuroergonomie. Parmi les méthodes actuellement disponibles en neuroimagerie fonctionnelle, la spectroscopie proche infrarouge (NIRS) quantifiant indirectement l'activité corticale (i.e., modification de la réponse hémodynamique) apparaît la plus pertinente quant à l'appréciation de l'activité corticale en continu. Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés, en exploitant la NIRS, à mettre en évidence les corrélats entre l'activité corticale (lobe frontal) et le niveau de sollicitation engendré par des charges de travail dans des tâches cognitives et/ou motrices à des intensités sous-maximales et de difficultés variables. Trois études ont été menées, dont les résultats montrent que l'activité hémodynamique mesurée par NIRS varie en fonction de la charge de travail. L'activité corticale est estimable à une intensité d'effort sous-maximale pour des tâches cognitives et/ou motrices, à condition que l'analyse des signaux soit suffisamment discriminante pour des sollicitations faibles à modérées. Ce travail a révélé la sensibilité et l'utilité de la NIRS dans l'exploration de la charge de travail

Neural and psychophysiological correlates of human performance under stress and high mental workload

International audienceIn our anxiogenic and stressful world, the maintenance of an optimal cognitive performance is a constant challenge. It is particularly true in complex working environments (e.g. flight deck, air traffic control tower), where individuals have sometimes to cope with a high mental workload and stressful situations. Several models (i.e. processing efficiency theory, cognitive-energetical framework) have attempted to provide a conceptual basis on how human performance is modulated by high workload and stress/anxiety. These models predict that stress can reduce human cognitive efficiency, even in the absence of a visible impact on the task performance. Performance may be protected under stress thanks to compensatory effort, but only at the expense of a cognitive cost. Yet, the psychophysiological cost of this regulation remains unclear. We designed two experiments involving pupil diameter, cardiovascular and prefrontal oxygenation measurements. Participants performed the Toulouse N-back Task that intensively engaged both working memory and mental calculation processes under the threat (or not) of unpredictable aversive sounds. The results revealed that higher task difficulty (higher n level) degraded the performance and induced an increased tonic pupil diameter, heart rate and activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex, and a decreased phasic pupil response and heart rate variability. Importantly, the condition of stress did not impact the performance, but at the expense of a psychophysiological cost as demonstrated by lower phasic pupil response, and greater heart rate and prefrontal activity. Prefrontal cortex seems to be a central region for mitigating the influence of stress because it subserves crucial functions (e.g. inhibition, working memory) that can promote the engagement of coping strategies. Overall, findings confirmed the psychophysiological cost of both mental effort and stress. Stress likely triggered increased motivation and the recruitment of additional cognitive resources that minimize its aversive effects on task performance (effectiveness), but these compensatory efforts consumed resources that caused a loss of cognitive efficiency (ratio between performance effectiveness and mental effort)

Improved cerebral oxygenation response and executive performance as a function of cardiorespiratory fitness in older women: a fNIRS study

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Why a Comprehensive Understanding of Mental Workload through the Measurement of Neurovascular Coupling Is a Key Issue for Neuroergonomics?

International audienceRaja Parasuraman, the father of Neuroergonomics (the crossroads of Ergonomics and Neuroscience, Figure 1) has opened the doors to new discoveries and techniques for advancing understanding of human behavior with the underlying brain mechanisms (Parasuraman, 1998). As of his death in 2015, a precise and objective definition of the concept of mental workload (MWL) had still not yet been formulated. In this opinion piece, we posit that MWL is associated through the measurement of neurovascular coupling (NVC); innovative neuroimaging methods is now capable of measuring such a phenomenon; all while highlighting Parasuraman's many contributions to this field

Prefrontal cortex activity during motor tasks with additional mental load requiring attentional demand: a near-infrared spectroscopy study.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is suitable for investigating cerebral oxygenation changes during motor and/or mental tasks. In the present study, we investigated how an additional mental load during a motor task at two submaximal loadings affects the fNIRS-measured brain activation over the right prefrontal cortex (PFC). Fifteen healthy males performed isometric grasping contractions at 15% and 30% of the maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) with or without an additional mental (i.e., arithmetic) task. Mental performance, force variability, fNIRS and subjective perception responses were measured in each condition. The performance of the mental task decreased significantly while the force variability increased significantly at 30% MVC as compared to 15% MVC, suggesting that performance of dual-task required more attentional resources. PFC activity increased significantly as the effort increased from 15% to 30% MVC (p<.001). Although a larger change in the deoxyhemoglobin was observed in dual-task conditions (p=.051), PFC activity did not change significantly as compared to the motor tasks alone. In summary, participants were unable to invest more attention and effort in performing the more difficult levels in order to maintain adequate mental performance