Spider behaviours increase trap efficacy

Orb-weaving spiders often use their legs to briefly jerk the radii of the web, generating intense vibrations throughout the web. Several functions have been proposed for this behaviour, but there is a lack of empirical evidence. In this study, we conducted a series of experiments on Cyclosa argenteoalba to examine the function and adaptive significance of spider jerks in the context of interactions with prey. First, we used within-individual, inter-individual, and interspecific comparisons (in three co-occurring Cyclosa sp.) to test whether the relation between prey and spider size predict the frequency of jerks that the spider performs. Second, we examined whether jerks prevent prey from escaping the web, whether jerks entangled more spiral threads around the prey, and how prey size affected this result. We found that spiders jerked more as the prey size increased and as spider size decreased. Jerking behaviour reduced the probability of prey escaping from the web and increased the number of spiral threads contacting the prey. The jerk efficiency (the number of additional spiral threads contacted per jerk) was lower in larger prey, which potentially explains why spiders jerk more towards larger prey. Collectively, our results highlight size dependency in the performance of jerks and their role in prey capture. Significance statements Many orb-weaving spiders show a behaviour that pulls the radii of the web intensively using their legs towards their prey, called jerks. Though this behaviour is common and has been recognised for many decades, the function and their adaptive significance have been surprisingly understudied. Using a series of experiments, we demonstrate that jerks help spiders prevent prey escape and subdue prey by entangling additional spiral (sticky) threads around the prey. We further show that the performance of jerks is size-dependent: spiders jerk more (1) as their size decreases and (2) as prey size increases. Further in-depth analysis suggests that the observed size-dependent jerks seem to be related to spiders' cautiousness and/or reduced jerk efficiency towards larger prey.N

Data from: Body size affects the evolution of hidden colour signals in moths

Many cryptic prey have also evolved hidden contrasting colour signals which are displayed to would-be predators. Given that these hidden contrasting signals may confer additional survival benefits to the prey by startling/intimidating predators, it is unclear why they have evolved in some species, but not in others. Here, we have conducted a comparative phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of colour traits in the family Erebidae (Lepidoptera), and found that the hidden contrasting colour signals are more likely to be found in larger species. To understand why this relationship occurs, we present a general mathematical model, demonstrating that selection for a secondary defence such as deimatic display will be stronger in large species when (i) the primary defence (crypsis) is likely to fail as its body size increases and/or (ii) the secondary defence is more effective in large prey. To test the model assumptions, we conducted behavioural experiments using a robotic moth which revealed that survivorship advantages were higher against wild birds when the moth has contrasting hindwings and large size. Collectively, our results suggest that the evolutionary association between large size and hidden contrasting signals has been driven by a combination of the need for a back-up defence and its efficacy

Comparative and experimental studies on the relationship between body size and countershading in caterpillars

Countershading is a gradient of colouration in which the illuminated dorsal surfaces are darker than the unilluminated ventral surface. It is widespread in the animal kingdom and endows the body with a more uniform colour to decrease the chance of detection by predators. Although recent empirical studies support the theory of survival advantage conferred by countershading, this camouflage strategy has evolved only in some of the cryptic animals, and our understanding of the factors that affect the evolution of countershading is limited. This study examined the association between body size and countershading using lepidopteran larvae (caterpillars) as a model system. Specifically, we predicted that countershading may have selectively evolved in large-sized species among cryptic caterpillars if (1) large size constrains camouflage which facilitates the evolution of a trait reinforcing their crypsis and (2) the survival advantage of countershading is size-dependent. Phylogenetic analyses of four different lepidopteran families (Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Erebidae, and Geometridae) suggest equivocal results: countershading was more likely to be found in larger species in Saturniidae but not in the other families. The field predation experiment assuming avian predators did not support size-dependent predation in countershaded prey. Collectively, we found only weak evidence that body size is associated with countershading in caterpillars. Our results suggest that body size is not a universal factor that has shaped the interspecific variation in countershading observed in caterpillars.N

Data used for the analysis

This excel file contains size and color category of each species in 5 different insect groups (Orthoptera, Mantidae, Phasmatidae, Saturniidae, and Sphingidae)

Data from: Consistent associations between body size and hidden contrasting color signals across a range of insect taxa

While there have been a number of recent advances in our understanding of the evolution of animal color patterns, much of this work has focused on color patterns that are constantly displayed. However, some animals hide functional color signals and only display them transiently through behavioral displays. These displays are widely employed as a secondary defense following detection when fleeing (flash display) or when stationary (deimatic display). Yet if displays of hidden colors are so effective in deterring predation, why have not all species evolved them? An earlier study suggested that the hidden anti-predatory color signals in insects are more likely to have evolved in species with large size because either (or both): i) large cryptic prey are more frequently detected and pursued and ii) hidden color signals in large prey are more effective in deterring predation than small prey. These arguments should apply universally to any prey that use hidden signals so the association between large size and hidden contrasting color signals should be evident across diverse groups of prey. In this study, we tested this prediction in five different groups of insects. Using phylogenetically controlled analysis to elucidate the relationship between body size and color contrast between forewings and hindwings, we found evidence for the predicted size-color contrast associations in four different groups of insects, namely Orthoptera, Phasmatidae, Mantidae, Saturniidae, but not in Sphingidae. Collectively, our study indicates that body size plays an important role in explaining variation in the evolution of hidden contrasting color signals in insects

Flash data file

Excel files that contain the data used for both conspicuous and body size experiments

Evolution of multiple prey defences: From predator cognition to community ecology

Exnerová A, Kang C, Rowland HM, Kikuchi DW. Evolution of multiple prey defences: From predator cognition to community ecology. Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 2023;36(7):961-966