Frequency of sexual interactions and associated factors among long-distance truck drivers operating along the Northern Corridor Highway, Kenya

Introduction: harsh working conditions among long-distance truck drivers (LDTDs) expose them to risky sexual interactions while on transit. As a result, the risky sexual interactions among the LDTDs place them at a high risk of contracting human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). This study sought to assess the sexual interactions and associated factors among the LDTDs in Kenya. Methods: two hundred ninety-six (296) LDTDs were interviewed using interviewer-administered questionnaires. A systematic sampling technique was adopted. The number of sexual acts reported by the respondents was used to generate an ordered outcome variable (frequency of sexual interactions), in the order of; no sexual acts (zero), one to three sexual acts (1), and four to six sexual acts (2). Association between the predictor variables and the outcome variable was analysed using ordered logistic regression analysis in R statistical software. Results: the mean age of the study participants was 38.4 years, with the youngest being 24 years and the oldest 57 years. Slightly above half of the participants (52.4%) reported no sexual interactions, while the rest (47.6%) had sexual interactions with either casual or regular sexual partners on the week preceding the survey. Age, the number of weeks spent on a transit journey, and drug use were independently associated with the frequency of sexual interactions among LDTDs involved in the study. Conclusion: the frequencies of sexual interactions are likely to be higher among the younger LDTDs, those who spent more than one week on transit, and those who use alcohol and khat, hence a high exposure risk to HIV/STIs among them

Seroprevalence of bovine leukemia virus infection in contrasting farming systems in Kenya

Enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL) is a worldwide disease of cattle caused by the bovine leukemia virus (BLV) and clinically characterised by occurrence of multiple lympho-sarcomas. In Kenya, cases of bovine lympho-sarcomas have been reported but limited information available on prevalence and distribution of BLV infection in the country. The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to estimate the seroprevalence of BLV infection in Kenya and how the seroprevalence is affected by different livestock farming systems. In 2016, 1383 bovine serum samples were randomly collected from 14 counties which were purposively selected to represent 3 livestock farming systems in the country. The sera were tested for the presence of antibodies against BLV using the IDEXX anti–BLV indirect ELISA test. An overall seroprevalence of 7.6% (95% CI: 6.3% - 9.1%) BLV infection was estimated. A multivariable mixed logistic regression model, with county as a random variable controlling for clustering, identified age and farming system as significant risk factors associated with BLV seropositivity. Zero-grazing (0.6%), ranching (4.4%) and pastoral systems (18.3%) differed in seroprevalence. Cattle under 1 year of age had a prevalence of 6.4%, while cattle over 1 year of age had a prevalence of 7.9%. BLV infection was present across the three farming systems but in only five of the fourteen counties assessed. This information contributes to designing effort on control programs of BLV infection in Kenya. Further research should be carried out to determine the frequency of clinical cases of EBL and the impact on the livestock industry in Kenya.Keywords: Bovine Leukemia Virus; Cattle, Seroprevalence; Keny

Control of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia: knowledge, attitudes, perceptions and practices in Narok district of Kenya

CBPP is an important transboundary disease in sub-Saharan Africa whose control is urgent. Participatory data collection involving 52 focus group discussions in 37 village clusters and key informant interviews, a cross-sectional study involving 232 households and a post-vaccination follow up involving 203 households was carried out in 2006–2007 in Narok South district of Kenya. This was to investigate knowledge, attitudes, perceptions and practices (KAPP) associated with control of CBPP as well as the adverse post-vaccination reactions in animals in order to advice the control policy. The community perceived trans-boundary CBPP threat to their cattle. They had traditional disease coping mechanisms and were conversant with CBPP prevention and control with 49.8% (95%CI: 42.8–56.7%) giving priority to CBPP control. However, 12.9% (95%CI: 9.0–18.1%) of pastoralists had no knowledge of any prevention method and 10.0% (95%CI: 6.5–14.7%) would not know what to do or would do nothing in the event of an outbreak. Although 43.5% (95%CI: 37.1–50.2%) of pastoralists were treating CBPP cases with antimicrobials, 62.5% (95%CI: 52.1–71.7%) of them doubted the effectiveness of the treatments. Pastoralists perceived vaccination to be the solution to CBPP but vaccination was irregular due to unavailability of the vaccine. Vaccination was mainly to control outbreaks rather than preventive and exhibited adverse post-vaccination reactions among 70.4% (95%CI: 63.6–76.5%) of herds and 3.8% (95%CI: 3.5–4.2%) of animals. Consequently, nearly 25.2% (95%CI: 18.5–33.2%) of pastoralists may resist subsequent vaccinations against CBPP. Pastoralists preferred CBPP vaccination at certain times of the year and that it is combined with other vaccinations. In conclusion, pastoralists were not fully aware of the preventive measures and interventions and post-vaccination reactions may discourage subsequent CBPP vaccinations. Consequently there is need for monitoring and management of post vaccination reactions and awareness creation on CBPP prevention and interventions and their merits and demerits. CBPP vaccine was largely unavailable to the pastoralists and the preference of the pastoralists was for vaccination at specified times and vaccine combinations which makes it necessary to avail the vaccine in conformity with the pastoralists preferences. In addition, planning vaccinations should involve pastoralists and neighbouring countries. As the results cannot be generalized, further studies on CBPP control methods and their effectiveness are recommended

Willingness to pay for contagious bovine pleuropneumonia vaccination in Narok South District of Kenya

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an economically important trans-boundary cattle disease which affects food security and livelihoods. A conjoint analysis–contingent valuation was carried out on 190 households in Narok South District of Kenya to measure willingness to pay (WTP) and demand for CBPP vaccine and vaccination as well as factors affecting WTP. The mean WTP was calculated at Kenya Shillings (KSh) 212.48 (USD 3.03) for vaccination using a vaccine with the characteristics that were preferred by the farmers (preferred vaccine and vaccination) and KSh −71.45 (USD −1.02) for the currently used vaccine and vaccination. The proportion of farmers willing to pay an amount greater than zero was 66.7% and 34.4% for the preferred and current vaccine and vaccination respectively. About one third (33.3%) of farmers would need to be compensated an average amount of KSh 1162.62 (USD 13.68) per animal to allow their cattle to be vaccinated against CBPP using the preferred vaccine and vaccination. About two-thirds (65.6%) of farmers would need to be compensated an average amount of KSh 853.72 (USD 12.20) per animal to allow their cattle to be vaccinated against CBPP using the current vaccine and vaccination. The total amount of compensation would be KSh 61.39 million (USD 0.88 million) for the preferred vaccine and vaccination and KSh 90.15 million (USD 1.29 million) for the current vaccine and vaccination. Demand curves drawn from individual WTP demonstrated that only 59% and 27% of cattle owners with a WTP greater than zero were willing to pay a benchmark cost of KSh 34.60 for the preferred and current vaccine respectively. WTP was negatively influenced by the attitude about household economic situation (p = 0.0078), presence of cross breeds in the herd (p < 0.0001) and years since CBPP had been experienced in the herd (p = 0.0375). It was positively influenced by education (p = 0.0251) and the practice of treating against CBPP (p = 0.0432). The benefit cost ratio (BCR) for CBPP vaccination was 2.9–6.1 depending on the vaccination programme. In conclusion, although a proportion of farmers was willing to pay, participation levels may be lower than those required to interrupt transmission of CBPP. Households with characteristics that influence WTP negatively need persuasion to participate in CBPP vaccination. It is economically worthwhile to vaccinate against CBPP. A benefit cost analysis (BCA) using aggregated WTP as benefits can be used as an alternative method to the traditional BCA which uses avoided production losses (new revenue) and costs saved as benefits

Sero-epidemiological survey of Coxiella burnetii in livestock and humans in Tana River and Garissa counties in Kenya

BackgroundCoxiella burnetii is a widely distributed pathogen, but data on its epidemiology in livestock, and human populations remain scanty, especially in developing countries such as Kenya. We used the One Health approach to estimate the seroprevalance of C. burnetii in cattle, sheep, goats and human populations in Tana River county, and in humans in Garissa county, Kenya. We also identified potential determinants of exposure among these hosts.MethodsData were collected through a cross-sectional study. Serum samples were taken from 2,727 animals (466 cattle, 1,333 goats, and 928 sheep) and 974 humans and screened for Phase I/II IgG antibodies against C. burnetii using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Data on potential factors associated with animal and human exposure were collected using a structured questionnaire. Multivariable analyses were performed with households as a random effect to adjust for the within-household correlation of C. burnetii exposure among animals and humans, respectively.ResultsThe overall apparent seroprevalence estimates of C. burnetii in livestock and humans were 12.80% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 11.57–14.11) and 24.44% (95% CI: 21.77–27.26), respectively. In livestock, the seroprevalence differed significantly by species (p ConclusionsThis study provides evidence of livestock and human exposure to C. burnetii which could have serious economic implications on livestock production and impact on human health. These results also highlight the need to establish active surveillance in the study area to reduce the disease burden associated with this pathogen

Inter-epidemic Rift Valley fever virus seropositivity in an irrigation scheme in Bura, southeast Kenya

Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is an acute mosquito-borne viral zoonosis that causes cyclical epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa, with recent incursions into the Arabian Peninsula. Outbreaks of RVF are associated with above average rainfall and flooding, in which large numbers of vectors emerge. Recent studies into the interepidemic maintenance of RVF virus (RVFV) suggest that both vertical transmission in vectors and direct transmission between hosts, in combination with predisposing ecosystems, are responsible for persistence of the virus. A longitudinal survey was carried out in Tana River County, Kenya, in three ecosystems (irrigated, riverine and pastoral) from September 2014 – June 2015. The objectives of the study were to investigate possibility of low-level RVFV transmission during an inter-epidemic period, to examine variation in RVFV seroprevalence in sheep and goats across these ecosystems and to determine the risk factors for RVFV transmission. 316 small ruminants were selected and tested for immunoglobulin G antibodies against RVFV nucleoprotein using a competitive ELISA during 6 visits. Data on potential risk factors was also captured. The overall RVF virus seropositivity was 12.3% (95%CI = 9%-16.6%) by the end of the study. This varied across the sampling sites with the pastoral ecosystem having a significantly higher seroprevalence at 26.1% (95%CI = 16.6%-38.3%, p0.05) in the irrigated area (7) and in the riverine area (11). Seroconversions were significantly associated with presence of water either due to rainfall or irrigation (p<0.05). This study indicates that RVFV is circulating in the studied area. It also highlights the risk posed by land use changes, such as the creation and expansion of irrigation schemes, in increasing the risk of inter-epidemic RVFV transmission. This is through provision of necessary environmental conditions for vegetative growth thus providing vectors with more breeding grounds, shade and resting places, which further prolong their lifespans thereby propagating the virus. The findings provide policy makers with the evidence needed for vector and RVF prevention and control within this changing environment

Establishing a One Health office in Kenya

A One Health (OH) approach that integrates human,animal and environmental approaches to management of zoonotic diseases has gained momentum in the last decadeas part of a strategy to prevent and control emerging infectious diseases. However, there are few examples of howan OH approach can be established in a country. Kenya establishment of an OH office, referred to asthe Zoonotic Disease Unit (ZDU) in 2011. The ZDU bridges theanimal and human health sectors with a senior epidemiologist deployed from each ministry; and agoal of maintaining collaboration at the animal and human health interface towards better prevention and control of zoonoses.The country is adding an ecologist to the ZDU to ensure that environmental risks are adequately addressed in emerging disease control