Climate finances. A review

"Klima-finantzak» terminoak klima-aldaketaren aurkako borrokan finantza-baliabideak emateko beharrari dagokio, bai arintzeko bai egokitzeko. Zehatzago, klima-finantzak 2009az geroztik herrialde garatuek hartutako nazioarteko konpromisoekin erlazionatzen dira. Ikuspuntu teoriko batetik, interesgarriak diren eztabaidak eskaintzen ditu ondorengoen arrazoien inguruan: egokitzearen alde baino arintzearen aldeko preferentzia ala «mitigation bias»-a, aldaketa klimatikora egokitzearen izaera ondasun publiko globalaren izaera, edo teknologien transferentzia finantzatransferentzien alternatiba, ala osagarri, gisa. Ikuspegi praktiko batetik, klima-finantzak finantza- sisteman klima-dimentsioa gero eta gehiago txertatzearekin lotzen da, zenbait produktu «berde» sortzearen bidez edo klima-arriskuak betebeharretan txertatuz, finantza-txostenak kaleratzeko orduan. © 2018.The term «climate finance» refers to the need to provide financial resources to fight climate change, in terms of both mitigation and adaptation. Strictly speaking, climate finance refers to international commitments made by developed countries since 2009. From a theoretical point of view, climate finance opens interesting discussions with respect to the underlying reasons for «mitigation bias» (i.e. a preference for mitigation over adaptation), the global public good nature of adaptation to climate change and technology transfers as an alternative or supplement to financial transfers. From a practical point of view, climate finance is concerned with gradually factoring climate issues into the financial system by creating «green» products and including climate risks in the financial disclosure obligations. © 2018.El término finanzas del clima se refiere a la necesidad de dotar de recursos financieros a la lucha contra el cambio climático, tanto en su vertiente de mitigación como de adaptación. En su sentido más estricto, las finanzas del clima se relacionan con los compromisos internacionales adoptados por los países desarrollados desde el año 2009. Desde un punto de vista teórico, las finanzas del clima ofrecen interesantes debates sobre las razones que subyacen al mitigation bias (en favor de la mitigación sobre la adaptación), la naturaleza de la adaptación al cambio climático como bien público global, o las transferencias tecnológicas como alternativa o complemento a las transferencias financieras. Desde un punto de vista práctico, las finanzas del clima se relacionan con la progresiva incorporación de la dimensión climática en el sistema financiero, mediante la creación de determinados productos «verdes», o la inclusión de los riesgos climáticos en las obligaciones a la hora de realizar informes financieros. © 2018.Los autores quieren agradecer el apoyo de Susana González y Mariana Viesca en la preparación de las figuras y el recuadro

An integrated approach for evaluating climate change risks: a case study in Suriname

This paper combines long-term state-of-the-art climate projections and indices to provide detailed insights into the future climate of Suriname to facilitate comprehensive information of areas and sectors at high climate risk for political decision-making. The study analyses Suriname's historical climate (1990-2014) and provides climate projections for three time horizons (2020-2044, 2045-2069, 2070-2094) and two emissions scenarios (intermediate/SSP2-4.5 and severe/SSP5-8.5). Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) modeling is used to analyze changes in sea level, temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and winds. In addition, risk impact chains were produced for the country's four most important socio-economic sectors: agriculture and fisheries, forestry, water, and infrastructure. Results show the temperature is expected to increase for all regions and timeframes, reaching warming up to 6 degrees C in the southern region in the long-term future (2070-2094). Projections point towards a reduction in precipitation in the southwest and coastal regions and a rise in mean sea level. Regarding risk, Paramaribo and Wanica face the highest climate risk. Coronie and Nickerie face the least climate risk. These regions remain the most and least vulnerable in both the SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios, but overall values of their risk indices increase substantially over time

Marine biodiversity and ecosystem function relationships: The potential for practical monitoring applications

Abstract There is an increasing demand for environmental assessments of the marine environment to include ecosystem function. However, existing schemes are predominantly based on taxonomic (i.e. structural) measures of biodiversity. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function (BEF) relationships are suggested to provide a mechanism for converting taxonomic information into surrogates of ecosystem function. This review assesses the evidence for marine BEF relationships and their potential to be used in practical monitoring applications (i.e. operationalized). Five key requirements were identified for the practical application of BEF relationships: 1) a complete understanding of strength, direction and prevalence of marine BEF relationships, 2) an understanding of which biological components are influential within specific BEF relationships, 3) the biodiversity of the selected biological components can be measured easily, 4) the ecological mechanisms that are the most important for generating marine BEF relationships, i.e. identity effects or complementarity, are known and 5) the proportion of the overall functional variance is explained by biodiversity, and hence BEF relationships, has been established. Numerous positive and some negative BEF relationships were found within the literature, although many reproduced poorly the natural species richness, trophic structures or multiple functions of real ecosystems (requirement 1). Null relationships were also reported. The consistency of the positive and negative relationships was often low that compromised the ability to generalize BEF relationships and confident application of BEF within marine monitoring. Equally, some biological components and functions have received little or no investigation. Expert judgement was used to attribute biological components using spatial extent, presence and functional rate criteria (requirement 2). This approach highlighted the main biological components contributing the most to specific ecosystem functions, and that many of the particularly influential components were found to have received the least amount of research attention. The need for biodiversity to be measureable (requirement 3) is possible for most biological components although difficult within the functionally important microbes. Identity effects underpinned most marine BEF relationships (requirement 4). As such, processes that translated structural biodiversity measures into functional diversity were found to generate better BEF relationships. The analysis of the contribution made by biodiversity, over abiotic influences, to the total expression of a particular ecosystem function was rarely measured or considered (requirement 5). Hence it is not possible to determine the overall importance of BEF relationships within the total ecosystem functioning observed. In the few studies where abiotic factors had been considered, it was clear that these modified BEF relationships and have their own direct influence on functional rate. Based on the five requirements, the information required for immediate ‘operationalization’ of BEF relationships within marine functional monitoring is lacking. However, the concept of BEF inclusion within practical monitoring applications, supported by ecological modelling, shows promise for providing surrogate indicators of functioning

The Prometastatic Microenvironment of the Liver

The liver is a major metastasis-susceptible site and majority of patients with hepatic metastasis die from the disease in the absence of efficient treatments. The intrahepatic circulation and microvascular arrest of cancer cells trigger a local inflammatory reaction leading to cancer cell apoptosis and cytotoxicity via oxidative stress mediators (mainly nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide) and hepatic natural killer cells. However, certain cancer cells that resist or even deactivate these anti-tumoral defense mechanisms still can adhere to endothelial cells of the hepatic microvasculature through proinflammatory cytokine-mediated mechanisms. During their temporary residence, some of these cancer cells ignore growth-inhibitory factors while respond to proliferation-stimulating factors released from tumor-activated hepatocytes and sinusoidal cells. This leads to avascular micrometastasis generation in periportal areas of hepatic lobules. Hepatocytes and myofibroblasts derived from portal tracts and activated hepatic stellate cells are next recruited into some of these avascular micrometastases. These create a private microenvironment that supports their development through the specific release of both proangiogenic factors and cancer cell invasion- and proliferation-stimulating factors. Moreover, both soluble factors from tumor-activated hepatocytes and myofibroblasts also contribute to the regulation of metastatic cancer cell genes. Therefore, the liver offers a prometastatic microenvironment to circulating cancer cells that supports metastasis development. The ability to resist anti-tumor hepatic defense and to take advantage of hepatic cell-derived factors are key phenotypic properties of liver-metastasizing cancer cells. Knowledge on hepatic metastasis regulation by microenvironment opens multiple opportunities for metastasis inhibition at both subclinical and advanced stages. In addition, together with metastasis-related gene profiles revealing the existence of liver metastasis potential in primary tumors, new biomarkers on the prometastatic microenvironment of the liver may be helpful for the individual assessment of hepatic metastasis risk in cancer patients

Climate change impacts on renewable energy generation. A review of quantitative projections

Research on climate change impacts on renewable energy is becoming increasingly relevant due to the vulnerability of the sector and to the continual development of methodologies and availability of data. Public and private decision-making needs specific research. However, many gaps still exist in certain geographical regions and technologies. Providing economic estimates with a value chain perspective are also missing from most papers. This paper addresses the most relevant studies that project quantitative estimates of climate change impacts on solar, wind, hydro and other renewable generation technologies. Summary tables of impacts and projections are provided so that researchers, governments and the private sector may have an accurate view of the state-of-the-art on this topic

The impact of climate change on the generation of hydroelectric power: a case study in Southern Spain

Climate change could pose a significant threat to the energy sector in various countries. The objective of this study is to analyze the long-term impact of changes in precipitation and water availability on hydroelectric production. To do so, the study focuses on three hydroelectric power plants in Southern Spain combining climatological, technical and economic data and projections. A physical model has been designed that reproduces the plants¿ operations and incorporates various scenarios for the evolution of contributions to the basin. The results predict a 10 to 49% drop in production by the end of the century, depending on the plant and scenario. This decrease in production, in accordance with our economic and operational hypotheses, would significantly affect the operating margins of the facilities and, in certain scenarios, could reach an economically unsustainable level by the end of the century. An investment analysis has been carried out as well, showing that climate change may jeopardize future investments in similar facilities

Climate change impacts on renewable energy generation. A review of quantitative projections

Research on climate change impacts on renewable energy is becoming increasingly relevant due to the vulnerability of the sector and to the continual development of methodologies and availability of data. Public and private decision-making needs specific research. However, many gaps still exist in certain geographical regions and technologies. Providing economic estimates with a value chain perspective are also missing from most papers. This paper addresses the most relevant studies that project quantitative estimates of climate change impacts on solar, wind, hydro and other renewable generation technologies. Summary tables of impacts and projections are provided so that researchers, governments and the private sector may have an accurate view of the state-of-the-art on this topic

An integrated approach for evaluating climate change risks: a case study in Suriname

This paper combines long-term state-of-the-art climate projections and indices to provide detailed insights into the future climate of Suriname to facilitate comprehensive information of areas and sectors at high climate risk for political decision-making. The study analyses Suriname's historical climate (1990-2014) and provides climate projections for three time horizons (2020-2044, 2045-2069, 2070-2094) and two emissions scenarios (intermediate/SSP2-4.5 and severe/SSP5-8.5). Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) modeling is used to analyze changes in sea level, temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and winds. In addition, risk impact chains were produced for the country's four most important socio-economic sectors: agriculture and fisheries, forestry, water, and infrastructure. Results show the temperature is expected to increase for all regions and timeframes, reaching warming up to 6 degrees C in the southern region in the long-term future (2070-2094). Projections point towards a reduction in precipitation in the southwest and coastal regions and a rise in mean sea level. Regarding risk, Paramaribo and Wanica face the highest climate risk. Coronie and Nickerie face the least climate risk. These regions remain the most and least vulnerable in both the SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios, but overall values of their risk indices increase substantially over time

Bibliografía de la educación en Vizcaya a través de los periódicos, 1931-1936

Conocer las preocupaciones educativas en el período de la Segunda República española a través de los periódicos. Catalogar la información de la prensa, clasificar por temas. Los periódicos publicados en Vizcaya en el período 1931-1936: La Gaceta del Norte, El Liberal, Euzkadi, La Tarde, El Nervión, El Pueblo Vasco, El Noticiero Bilbaíno, Hoja del Lunes, Tierra Vasca. Estudio histórico de los artículos publicados en la prensa estructurados de la siguiente manera: autor, título del escrito, nombre de la publicación o prensa, fecha, página, fondo en que se encuentra, breve resumen del contenido. Fichas. Análisis histórico. Estudio comparativo de niveles educativos. Sin efectuar. El período comprendido desde 1900 a 1936 en los diferentes trabajos de investigación efectuados en Vizcaya empieza a ser de interés en el campo educativo. El inicio de hablar de nuestros propios temas dará la posibilidad de especialización en el campo de la Investigación educativa en el País Vasco y dentro de la Historia.País VascoES

A multicriteria methodology to evaluate climate neutrality claims - a case study with Spanish firms

Net-zero pledges have become a paradigm of ambitious climate change action for companies, governments, and other organisations. However, there is no international standard or criteria to assess whether those commitments are feasible or truly represent a landmark in low carbon performance. In this paper, a methodology is proposed against which those statements can be quantified and assessed. The methodology was applied to Spanish companies that report to the Carbon Disclosure Project and showed that the biggest areas for improvement are the design of action plans, calculation, and offsetting. From a sectoral perspective, the energy sector, finance, and other services stood out as those with the highest scores. The food, beverages and tobacco, industry, and the entertainment industry obtained the lowest results. From a technical standpoint, strategy and commitment, calculation and scope, and communication are the areas where companies had the highest average scores. On the contrary, offsetting and action plans are the areas with the greatest room for improvement. Still, actual commitments are not enough to meet international climate neutrality objectives in the long-term and companies should continue to work in this direction. An enabling regulatory framework would be very useful to align private and public action in this area