Social factors affecting seasonal variation in bovine trypanosomiasis on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria

BACKGROUND: African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a widespread disease of livestock in Nigeria and presents a major constraint to rural economic development. The Jos Plateau was considered free from tsetse flies and the trypanosomes they transmit due to its high altitude and this trypanosomiasis free status attracted large numbers of cattle-keeping pastoralists to the area. The Jos Plateau now plays a major role in the national cattle industry in Nigeria, accommodating approximately 7% of the national herd, supporting 300,000 pastoralists and over one million cattle. During the past two decades tsetse flies have invaded the Jos Plateau and animal trypanosomiasis has become a significant problem for livestock keepers. Here we investigate the epidemiology of trypanosomiasis as a re-emerging disease on the Plateau, examining the social factors that influence prevalence and seasonal variation of bovine trypanosomiasis. METHODS: In 2008 a longitudinal two-stage cluster survey was undertaken on the Jos Plateau. Cattle were sampled in the dry, early wet and late wet seasons. Parasite identification was undertaken using species-specific polymerase chain reactions to determine the prevalence and distribution of bovine trypanosomiasis. Participatory rural appraisal was also conducted to determine knowledge, attitudes and practices concerning animal husbandry and disease control. RESULTS: Significant seasonal variation between the dry season and late wet season was recorded across the Jos Plateau, consistent with expected variation in tsetse populations. However, marked seasonal variations were also observed at village level to create 3 distinct groups: Group 1 in which 50% of villages followed the general pattern of low prevalence in the dry season and high prevalence in the wet season; Group 2 in which 16.7% of villages showed no seasonal variation and Group 3 in which 33.3% of villages showed greater disease prevalence in the dry season than in the wet season. CONCLUSIONS: There was high seasonal variation at the village level determined by management as well as climatic factors. The growing influence of management factors on the epidemiology of trypanosomiasis highlights the impact of recent changes in land use and natural resource competition on animal husbandry decisions in the extensive pastoral production system

Factors Associated with Acquisition of Human Infective and Animal Infective Trypanosome Infections in Domestic Livestock in Western Kenya

Trypanosomiasis is regarded as a constraint on livestock production in Western Kenya where the responsibility for tsetse and trypanosomiasis control has increasingly shifted from the state to the individual livestock owner. To assess the sustainability of these localised control efforts, this study investigates biological and management risk factors associated with trypanosome infections detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in a range of domestic livestock at the local scale in Busia, Kenya. Busia District also remains endemic for human sleeping sickness with sporadic cases of sleeping sickness reported.In total, trypanosome infections were detected in 11.9% (329) out of the 2773 livestock sampled in Busia District. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that host species and cattle age affected overall trypanosome infection, with significantly increased odds of infection for cattle older than 18 months, and significantly lower odds of infection in pigs and small ruminants. Different grazing and watering management practices did not affect the odds of trypanosome infection, adjusted by host species. Neither anaemia nor condition score significantly affected the odds of trypanosome infection in cattle. Human infective Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense were detected in 21.5% of animals infected with T. brucei s.l. (29/135) amounting to 1% (29/2773) of all sampled livestock, with significantly higher odds of T. brucei rhodesiense infections in T. brucei s.l. infected pigs (OR =  4.3, 95%CI 1.5-12.0) than in T. brucei s.l. infected cattle or small ruminants.Although cattle are the dominant reservoir of trypanosome infection it is unlikely that targeted treatment of only visibly diseased cattle will achieve sustainable interruption of transmission for either animal infective or zoonotic human infective trypanosomiasis, since most infections were detected in cattle that did not exhibit classical clinical signs of trypanosomiasis. Pigs were also found to be reservoirs of infection for T. b. rhodesiense and present a risk to local communities

Spectrophotometric Determination Of Amitriptyline By The Method Of Charge-Transfer Complexation With Chloranilic Acid

Spectrophotometric technique was employed in the quantitative determination of amitriptyline in its pharmaceutical tablet formulation. The complex produced a purple colour that absorbed maximally at 520 nm and was stable over 10 h. The molar absorbtivity and Sandell\'s sensitivity for the complex were 4666 l mol-1 cm-1 and 15 ng/ml respectively. The complexation reaction obeys Beer-Lambert law between 3.134 x 10-2 M and 3.314 x 10-1 M that was investigated. Quantitative analysis of three (3) different brands of amitriptyline by the proposed method gave recoveries of A = 97.8 ± RSD 0.81 %; B = 98.7 ± RSD 0.75 % and C = 98.3 ± RSD 0.88 %. Pharmacopoeia method gave corresponding values of 95.5 ± RSD 2.96%; 96.1 ± RSD 2.15 % and 95.15 ± RSD 3.05 % respectively. These results show that the proposed method is more sensitive than the official method. Statistical comparison of these techniques by Student t-test (p > 0.05) however did not suggest any significant difference between them. The simplicity and accuracy of the proposed method means that it could be used for rapid screening of amitriptyline in hospital environment where elaborate and sophisticated equipment may not be readily available. KEY WORDS: Amitriptyline, chloranilic acid, spectrophotometric analysis Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences Vol.11(2) 2005: 237-24

Accelerated Stability Study On 2- Hydroxyl-3-(O-Methoxyphenoxy)-1,2-Propanediol-1-Carbamate [Methocarbamol] In Different Solvent Systems

Spectrophotometric technique was employed in studying the hydrolysis of methocarbamol under different pH conditions: hydrochloric acid buffer (pH 1.0), citric acid buffer (pH 4.0), phosphate buffer (pH 7.0; 7.4; 8.4) and in different solvents such as water, ethanol, acetonitrile and glycerol. There was a marked increase in the rate of hydrolysis in basic media but less so in the acidic buffers. The effect of sorbitol on the hydrolysis constant in both hydrochloric acid and phosphate buffers showed only moderate effect. The kinetics of degradation of methocarbamol in these media appeared to follow pseudo-first-order rate law. KEY WORDS: Methocarbamol, Hydrolysis constant, Spectrophotometric analysis. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences Vol.11(2) 2005: 221-22

Zidovudine-cyclodextrin inclusion complex and its permeability across rat stomach and intestinal compartments

The permeability of zidovudine in zidovudine-cyclodextrin inclusion complex across stomach and intestinal compartments of rat was investigated spectrophotometrically. The absorption maximum ( ) for zidovudine in HCl max buffer (pH 1.2) and in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) were 267 and 268 nm respectively. The inclusion complex wasformed by freeze-drying method and the stoichiometric ratio was determined to be 1:1. Infra-red spectrophotometry was used to confirm the formation of the inclusion complex. Buffered solutions of the inclusion complex were introduced into the stomach (HCl buffer, pH 1.2) and intestine (phosphate buffer, pH 7.4) immersed in appropriatebuffer solution. In the stomach, after 60 min, the transport of zidovudine increased by between 50 and 55 % above that of zidovudine alone; while in the intestine the increase was between 10 and 15 %. In both tissues the steady state condition for zidovudine alone occurred after 4 h while that for the inclusion complex occurred after 3 h. These figuressuggest that B - cyclodextrin facilitated the transport of zidovudine across these tissues and so we intrapolate that Bcyclodextrincan improve the bioavailability of zidovudin

Overcoming phase 1 delays: the critical component of obstetric fistula prevention programs in resource-poor countries

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>An obstetric fistula is a traumatic childbirth injury that occurs when labor is obstructed and delivery is delayed. Prolonged obstructed labor leads to the destruction of the tissues that normally separate the bladder from the vagina and creates a passageway (fistula) through which urine leaks continuously. Women with a fistula become social outcasts. Universal high-quality maternity care has eliminated the obstetric fistula in wealthy countries, but millions of women in resource-poor nations still experience prolonged labor and tens of thousands of new fistula sufferers are added to the millions of pre-existing cases each year. This article discusses fistula prevention in developing countries, focusing on the factors which delay treatment of prolonged labor.</p> <p>Discussion</p> <p>Obstetric fistulas can be prevented through contraception, avoiding obstructed labor, or improving outcomes for women who develop obstructed labor. Contraception is of little use to women who are already pregnant and there is no reliable screening test to predict obstruction in advance of labor. Improving the outcome of obstructed labor depends on prompt diagnosis and timely intervention (usually by cesarean section). Because obstetric fistulas are caused by tissue compression, the time interval from obstruction to delivery is critical. This time interval is often extended by delays in deciding to seek care, delays in arriving at a hospital, and delays in accessing treatment after arrival. Communities can reasonably demand that governments and healthcare institutions improve the second (transportation) and third (treatment) phases of delay. Initial delays in seeking hospital care are caused by failure to recognize that labor is prolonged, confusion concerning what should be done (often the result of competing therapeutic pathways), lack of women’s agency, unfamiliarity with and fear of hospitals and the treatments they offer (especially surgery), and economic constraints on access to care.</p> <p>Summary</p> <p>Women in resource-poor countries will use institutional obstetric care when the services provided are valued more than the competing choices offered by a pluralistic medical system. The key to obstetric fistula prevention is competent obstetrical care delivered respectfully, promptly, and at affordable cost. The utilization of these services is driven largely by trust.</p