Implementing poultry vaccination and biosecurity at the village level in Tanzania: a social strategy to promote health in free-range poultry populations

A social strategy was tested for implementing Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination and biosecurity improvements among free-ranging chicken at village level in Tanzania. In addition to training the local poultry vaccinators, data recorders and poultry-keepers, the strategy involved training and empowering leaders at the district, ward and village level. The trainings covered poultry health, management, and marketing of village chickens, with an emphasis on ND vaccination and improving biosecurity against avian influenza (AI), The study sites included villages in one ward in each of three each three districts (Iringa, Mtwara-Mikindani, and Mvomero) of mainland Tanzania. Ninety-six local leaders at district level and 101 leaders at ward levels were trained. In addition, 196 farmers (households) were trained, as well as 86 vaccinators and 26 data recorders. Data recorders were also trained as poultry first aid workers. ND vaccination was conducted by the vaccinators, supervised by their local leaders with technical assistance from veterinarians. A total of 158,343 village chickens were vaccinated in three rounds of vaccination three months apart. The training and empowerment of local leaders and local implementers was the key element for success as it fostered the feeling of local ownership of the program and prevented conflicts with other development activities within the villages. We conclude that most animal health programs will increase their odds of success by involving local leaders and by addressing the current challenges facing the farmers. Further assessment on the usefulness of this approach is needed

The financial cost of doctors emigrating from sub-Saharan Africa: human capital analysis

Objective To estimate the lost investment of domestically educated doctors migrating from sub-Saharan African countries to Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States

Mitochondrial phylogeography and population structure of the cattle tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus in the African Great Lakes region

Abstract Background The ixodid tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus is the main vector of Theileria parva, wich causes the highly fatal cattle disease East Coast fever (ECF) in sub-Saharan Africa. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus populations differ in their ecology, diapause behaviour and vector competence. Thus, their expansion in new areas may change the genetic structure and consequently affect the vector-pathogen system and disease outcomes. In this study we investigated the genetic distribution of R. appendiculatus across agro-ecological zones (AEZs) in the African Great Lakes region to better understand the epidemiology of ECF and elucidate R. appendiculatus evolutionary history and biogeographical colonization in Africa. Methods Sequencing was performed on two mitochondrial genes (cox1 and 12S rRNA) of 218 ticks collected from cattle across six AEZs along an altitudinal gradient in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. Phylogenetic relationships between tick populations were determined and evolutionary population dynamics models were assessed by mismach distribution. Results Population genetic analysis yielded 22 cox1 and 9 12S haplotypes in a total of 209 and 126 nucleotide sequences, respectively. Phylogenetic algorithms grouped these haplotypes for both genes into two major clades (lineages A and B). We observed significant genetic variation segregating the two lineages and low structure among populations with high degree of migration. The observed high gene flow indicates population admixture between AEZs. However, reduced number of migrants was observed between lowlands and highlands. Mismatch analysis detected a signature of rapid demographic and range expansion of lineage A. The star-like pattern of isolated and published haplotypes indicates that the two lineages evolve independently and have been subjected to expansion across Africa. Conclusions Two sympatric R. appendiculatus lineages occur in the Great Lakes region. Lineage A, the most diverse and ubiquitous, has experienced rapid population growth and range expansion in all AEZs probably through cattle movement, whereas lineage B, the less abundant, has probably established a founder population from recent colonization events and its occurrence decreases with altitude. These two lineages are sympatric in central and eastern Africa and allopatric in southern Africa. The observed colonization pattern may strongly affect the transmission system and may explain ECF endemic instability in the tick distribution fringes

Marketing of free range local chickens in Dar Es Salaam City: Some implications for Rural Extension Services in Tanzania

Improving the Health and Productivity of Rural Chickens in Africa (IHEPRUCA) ProjectThis study was conducted from 29th April, 2003 to 6th May, 2003 with the main aim of of the study was to investigate the marketing strategies and the income that village buyers and the urban middle-persons earned from the free-range local chicken (FRLCs), i.e. the latter bought FRLCs in the rural villages and the former sold them in the city of Dar es Salaam. The study interviewed 160 respondents involved in the marketing of FRLC, and of these, 88 were village buyers and 72 were middle-persons. The village buyers went out in the rural areas, bought FRLCs and transported them to Dar es Salaam city and sold chicken to the middle-persons who in turn sold them to urban consumers. To cover the 13 markets scattered in the three Districts (Kinondoni, Ilala, Temeke) in the region of Dar es Salaam, three trained enumerators were temporarily employed to interview village buyers and urban middle-persons using a pre-tested and validated questionnaires. The study found that most the people involved in the FRLCs business were younger (30 to 45 years of age) and over 90 percent were males. Tuesdays and Thursdays were the days when most of the FRLCs were brought in from the up-country destinations. Most of the FRLCs sold in 13 markets in the city of Dar es Salaam originated from Dodoma and Singida regions—further proving earlier proof that these two regions produced the most FRLCs sold in the city. Most of the FRLCs were transported on trains and that the tenga was the most common container used for transporting chicken to the markets. Cocks were priced highly than hens, and that August, September and October FRLCs fetched high prices. Respondents showed that most of the FRLCs showed disease symptoms in September. The urban middle-persons earned more profits from selling FRLCs than did the village buyers. There are a number of implications for rural extension services that emanate from this study that could improve the husbandry of FRLCs, hence, contributing to household income and poverty alleviation in rural areas. Furthermore, the findings of this study have demonstrated the enormous potential of FRLCs a resource that few have tapped leaving out the smallholder to get a pittance. Therefore, this study makes recommendations at six levels of operation: the extension officers, the researchers, the village buyers and urban middle-persons, the NGOs and the Government

Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R. zambeziensis (Acari: Ixodidae) from Zambia: a molecular reassessment of their species status and identification

The closely related species Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R. zambeziensis co-occur in a wide area in Zambia. In this area, specimens of both species have been collected on the same individual host at the same time. In addition, specimens that are morphologically intermediate between R. appendiculatus and R. zambeziensis have been found in this area. These observations cast some doubt on the species status of R. appendiculatus and R. zambeziensis. Because the two taxa have varied influences on the epidemiology of East Coast fever (ECF), a cattle disease for which they act as vectors, it is essential that their taxonomic status is clarified and their identification is accurate. Therefore a phylogenetic analysis of nucleotide sequences of the ITS2 and a fragment of the mitochondrial 12S rDNA was performed to reassess the specific status of both taxa. This revealed two well supported clades coinciding with R. appendiculatus and R. zambeziensis as two separate species. In order to facilitate species identification a PCR-RFLP diagnostic assay was developed based on BauI digestion of the ITS2 gene. This assay produced clear diagnostic banding patterns for the two species and is applicable over a wide range of both species' distribution

Marketing of free range local chickens in Dar Es Salaam City: Some implications for Rural Extension Services in Tanzania

Improving the Health and Productivity of Rural Chickens in Africa (IHEPRUCA) ProjectThis study was conducted from 29th April, 2003 to 6th May, 2003 with the main aim of of the study was to investigate the marketing strategies and the income that village buyers and the urban middle-persons earned from the free-range local chicken (FRLCs), i.e. the latter bought FRLCs in the rural villages and the former sold them in the city of Dar es Salaam. The study interviewed 160 respondents involved in the marketing of FRLC, and of these, 88 were village buyers and 72 were middle-persons. The village buyers went out in the rural areas, bought FRLCs and transported them to Dar es Salaam city and sold chicken to the middle-persons who in turn sold them to urban consumers. To cover the 13 markets scattered in the three Districts (Kinondoni, Ilala, Temeke) in the region of Dar es Salaam, three trained enumerators were temporarily employed to interview village buyers and urban middle-persons using a pre-tested and validated questionnaires. The study found that most the people involved in the FRLCs business were younger (30 to 45 years of age) and over 90 percent were males. Tuesdays and Thursdays were the days when most of the FRLCs were brought in from the up-country destinations. Most of the FRLCs sold in 13 markets in the city of Dar es Salaam originated from Dodoma and Singida regions—further proving earlier proof that these two regions produced the most FRLCs sold in the city. Most of the FRLCs were transported on trains and that the tenga was the most common container used for transporting chicken to the markets. Cocks were priced highly than hens, and that August, September and October FRLCs fetched high prices. Respondents showed that most of the FRLCs showed disease symptoms in September. The urban middle-persons earned more profits from selling FRLCs than did the village buyers. There are a number of implications for rural extension services that emanate from this study that could improve the husbandry of FRLCs, hence, contributing to household income and poverty alleviation in rural areas. Furthermore, the findings of this study have demonstrated the enormous potential of FRLCs a resource that few have tapped leaving out the smallholder to get a pittance. Therefore, this study makes recommendations at six levels of operation: the extension officers, the researchers, the village buyers and urban middle-persons, the NGOs and the Government