Confidential Communications between Clients and Patent Agents: Are They Protected under the Attorney-Client Privilege

Typically, the attorney-client privilege applies only to attorneys admitted to practice law by a state bar. However, courts have expanded the application of the attorney-client privilege. This Article focuses on whether a group of specialized legal professionals-patent agents-should be included in the category of legal advisors who are entitled to the attorney-client privilege. The recognition or rejection of a privilege for patent agents may be of critical importance during litigation in the United States involving patent rights. The author concludes that patent agents who function as legal practitioners should independently be recognized as attorneys for the purpose of the attorney-client privilege. The Article first traces the development of courts\u27 perceptions of the work of patent agents, then examines the divided case law on whether United States patent agents should be afforded the attorney-client privilege and concludes that the better reasoned cases recognize a privilege for United States patent agents because they perform the same function as attorneys who practice patent law. Finally, the Article argues that the recognition of an attorney-client privilege for United States patent agents should lead a fortiori to recognition by United States courts of an attorney-client privilege for registered foreign patent agents who similarly function as legal practitioners in their respective countries. The Article concludes that because registered patent agents in the United States are the functional equivalent of patent attorneys, they should be consistently granted the status of an attorney for purposes of the attorney-client privilege

Trophic networks improve the performance of microbial anodes treating wastewater

Microbial anodes represent a distinct ecological niche that is characterized mainly by the terminal electron acceptor, i.e., the anode potential, and the substrate, i.e., the electron source. Here, we determine the performance and the biofilm community of anode microbiomes while using substrates of increasing complexity (organic acids or organic acids and sugar or real domestic wastewater) to mimic different, practically relevant, trophic levels. α-Diversity values increased with substrate complexity. In addition, the higher abundance value of Deltaproteobacteria in the biofilms corresponds to higher reactor performance (i.e., COD removal, current density, and Coulombic efficiency). In reactors exploiting real wastewater, the diversity of the planktonic microorganisms was only little affected. Microbiome network analysis revealed two important clusters for reactor performance as well as performance-independent pathogen-containing clusters. Interestingly, Geobacter was not found to be integrated in the network underlining its outstanding individual ecological role in line with its importance for the efficiency of the electron harvest for all reactors. The microbiome analysis of different trophic levels and their temporal development from initial colonization to stable treatment demonstrate important principles for the implementation of microbial anodes for wastewater treatment

Maturation of mammalian H/ACA box snoRNAs: PAPD5-dependent adenylation and PARN-dependent trimming

Small nucleolar and small Cajal body RNAs (snoRNAs and scaRNAs) of the H/ACA box and C/D box type are generated by exonucleolytic shortening of longer precursors. Removal of the last few nucleotides at the 3' end is known to be a distinct step. We report that, in human cells, knock-down of the poly(A) specific ribonuclease (PARN), previously implicated only in mRNA metabolism, causes the accumulation of oligoadenylated processing intermediates of H/ACA box but not C/D box RNAs. In agreement with a role of PARN in snoRNA and scaRNA processing, the enzyme is concentrated in nucleoli and Cajal bodies. Oligo(A) tails are attached to a short stub of intron sequence remaining beyond the mature 3' end of the snoRNAs. The noncanonical poly(A) polymerase PAPD5 is responsible for addition of the oligo(A) tails. We suggest that deadenylation is coupled to clean 3' end trimming, which might serve to enhance snoRNA stability

Bifidobacterium breve reduces apoptotic epithelial cell shedding in an exopolysaccharide and MyD88-dependent manner

Certain members of the microbiota genus Bifidobacterium are known to positively influence host well-being. Importantly, reduced bifidobacterial levels are associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients, who also have impaired epithelial barrier function, including elevated rates of apoptotic extrusion of small intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) from villi—a process termed ‘cell shedding’. Using a mouse model of pathological cell shedding, we show that mice receiving Bifidobacterium breve UCC2003 exhibit significantly reduced rates of small IEC shedding. Bifidobacterial-induced protection appears to be mediated by a specific bifidobacterial surface exopolysaccharide and interactions with host MyD88 resulting in downregulation of intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic responses to protect epithelial cells under highly inflammatory conditions. Our results reveal an important and previously undescribed role for B. breve, in positively modulating epithelial cell shedding outcomes via bacterial- and host-dependent factors, supporting the notion that manipulation of the microbiota affects intestinal disease outcomes

Pollutant dispersion in a developing valley cold-air pool

Pollutants are trapped and accumulate within cold-air pools, thereby affecting air quality. A numerical model is used to quantify the role of cold-air-pooling processes in the dispersion of air pollution in a developing cold-air pool within an alpine valley under decoupled stable conditions. Results indicate that the negatively buoyant downslope flows transport and mix pollutants into the valley to depths that depend on the temperature deficit of the flow and the ambient temperature structure inside the valley. Along the slopes, pollutants are generally entrained above the cold-air pool and detrained within the cold-air pool, largely above the ground-based inversion layer. The ability of the cold-air pool to dilute pollutants is quantified. The analysis shows that the downslope flows fill the valley with air from above, which is then largely trapped within the cold-air pool, and that dilution depends on where the pollutants are emitted with respect to the positions of the top of the ground-based inversion layer and cold-air pool, and on the slope wind speeds. Over the lower part of the slopes, the cold-air-pool-averaged concentrations are proportional to the slope wind speeds where the pollutants are emitted, and diminish as the cold-air pool deepens. Pollutants emitted within the ground-based inversion layer are largely trapped there. Pollutants emitted farther up the slopes detrain within the cold-air pool above the ground-based inversion layer, although some fraction, increasing with distance from the top of the slopes, penetrates into the ground-based inversion layer.Peer reviewe

Chapter 16 - Cross-cutting investment and finance issues

This is the first time an assessment report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) contains a chapter dedicated to investment and finance to address climate change. This reflects the growing awareness of the relevance of these issues for the design of efficient and effective climate policies

Herausforderung Climate Engineering – Bewertung neuer Optionen für den Klimaschutz

[Einleitung] Der Begriff Climate Engineering (CE) fasst verschiedene Technologien zusammen, mit denen bewusst in das Klimasystem der Erde eingegriffen wird, um den anthropogenen Klimawandel zu begrenzen. Dabei lassen sich die CE-Technologien von den herkömmlichen Vermeidungs- und Anpassungsmaßnahmen durch die Tatsache abgrenzen, dass sie ansetzen, nachdem Treibhausgase in die Atmosphäre emittiert wurden, aber bevor es zu einer Anpassung an die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels kommt (Keith 2000). Sie können danach in zwei Gruppen eingeteilt werden, je nachdem ob sie eingesetzt werden, um die atmosphärische Treibhausgaskonzentration zu senken - und damit die Ursache des Klimawandels zurückzuführen - oder ob sie eingesetzt werden, um in die Strahlungsbilanz der Erde einzugreifen und damit die Symptome des Klimawandels abzumildern. Die Technologien der ersten Gruppe werden als Carbon Dioxid Removal (CDR)-Technologien und jene der anderen als Radiation Management (RM)-Technologien bezeichnet. Dabei ist Radiation Management der weitere Begriff, da sowohl Technologien zur direkten Beeinflussung der kurzwelligen (SRM) als auch der langwelligen (TRM) Strahlung beinhaltet sind. Entsprechend könnten Technologien zur ursächlichen Rückführung des Klimawandels eigentlich auch als Concentration Management bezeichnet werden, da theoretisch die atmosphärische Konzentration verschiedener Treibhausgase manipuliert werden könnte (Rickels et al. 2011: 41). Da aber derzeit nur die Konzentration von Kohlendioxid (CO2) beeinflusst wird, wird in der vorliegenden Studie der engere Begriff CDR verwendet. [...

Casting for a sovereign role:Socialising an aspirant state in the Scottish independence referendum

This article examines international reactions to Scotland’s 2014 bid for independence as an instance of socialisation of an aspirant state, what we term ‘pre-socialisation’. Building on and contributing to research on state socialisation and role theory, this study proposes a nexus between roles and sovereignty. This nexus has three components: sovereignty itself is a role casted for by an actor; the sovereign role is entangled with the substantive foreign policy roles the actor might play; and the sovereign role implicates the substantive foreign policy roles of other actors. The Scottish debate on independence provides an effective laboratory to develop and explore these theoretical dimensions of pre-socialisation, revealing the contested value and meaning of sovereignty, the possible roles that an independent Scotland could play, and the projected implications for the role of the UK and other international actors. Our analysis of the Scottish case can provide insights for other cases of pre-socialisation and is more empirically significant following the UK’s 2016 referendum to leave the European Union.PostprintPeer reviewe

Unexpected combination of acute croup and myocarditis: Case report

BACKGROUND: Lower vaccination coverage among foreign-born children is of concern because they live in households and communities characterized by more intense exposure to infectious diseases. Because of their higher prevalence rates, there is an increasing occurrence of infectious diseases imported into developed countries. This case report emphasizes the emerging necessity for new clinicians and pathologists of having competence with old infectious disease pathology. CASE PRESENTATION: A three and a half year old girl, who presented with croup history of 5 days and has been in severe respiratory distress, was admitted to the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit in shock and acute respiratory failure. The patient was immediately intubated, and a grayish nonadherent membrane extending through the glottis down into the larynx was apparent during the procedure. Echocardiographic findings, which were consistent with acute myocarditis, confirmed poor left ventricular contractility despite escalating high doses of inotropes. Autopsy showed numerous strains of toxigenic corynobacterium diphtheriae, which also grew on the Loeffler cultures of membranes received during the intubation. CONCLUSION: It is critical that new generations of clinicians and bio-pathologists not only be trained in the subspecialty of infectious disease pathology, but that they also be willing participants in the diagnosis and investigation of infectious diseases