The translation of culturally specific items

The translation of items (words and phrases) which are specific to one culture from a Source Language expressing that culture (the Source Culture) into a Target Language expressing another culture (the Target Culture) necessarily involves ‘dislocation’. This paper reviews three influential typologies for the translation of culturally specific items: Ivir (1987), Newmark (1981, 1988), and Hervey and Higgins (1992), referring also to Venuti (1995). It suggests a number of dichotomies for understanding these typologies and the translation of culturally specific items: 1 Source Culture-/Source Language-oriented (dom esticating) vs. Target Culture-/Target Language-oriented (foreignising); 2 non- lexicalised/ ungrammatical vs. lexicalised/grammatical; 3 semantically systematic vs. semantically anomalous; 4 synonymy-oriented vs. non-synonymy oriented; 5 situationally equivalent vs. culturally analogous; 6 lexical vs. structural. As an aid to understanding these typologies, the paper provides a visual ‘grid’, siting the various procedures proposed by each of the four typologies

A not-so proximate account of cleansing behavior

In this commentary we outline Perceptual Control Theory and suggest this as a fruitful way for Lee and Schwartz to fully embody their account of cleansing behavior. Moreover we take issue with the command control approach that Lee and Schwartz have taken seeing this as an unnecessary cognitive commitment within an embodied model of cleansing behavior

MID-PERMIAN (KUBERGANDIAN-MURGABIAN) BIVALVES FROM THE KHUFF FORMATION, OMAN: IMPLICATIONS FOR WORLD EVENTS AND CORRELATION

Ten species, of which six are newly recognized, from ten genera, Nuculopsis, Phestia, Edmondia, Dyasmya, Janeia ?, Liebia ?, Vnigripecten, Cyrtorostra, Schizodus and Astartella ?, are described from the basal part of the Khuff Formation. Some forms apparently related to Dyasmya are discussed, the characters of Janeia and the classification of the aviculopectinids. The fauna has a special significance because it is associated with a major mid-Permian transgressive unconformity found in the Middle East and many other parts of the world. Because the transgression succeeds a major regression which is widely represented by hiatus or non-marine deposits, the fauna contributes significantly to understanding the world correlation of the time. An important world-wide change in fauna also takes place. The fauna from the lower part of the Khuff is regarded as not older than Kubergandian or its equivalent (Roadian and "Upper" Ufimian = Sheshminsk) but from the bivalves alone might range from Kubergandian to Murgabian or it’s probable equivalent the Kazanian.&nbsp

[Open peer commentary] Is genomics bad for you?

The plasticity of the genome complicates genetic causation, but should be investigated from a functional perspective. Specific adaptive hypotheses are referenced in the target article, but it is also necessary to explain how the integrity of the genome is maintained despite processes that tend towards its diversification and degradation. These include the accumulation of deleterious changes and intra-genomic conflict

Associative meaning and scalar implicature: a linguistic-semiotic account

This paper shows that three kinds of phenomena typically subject to disparate analyses are all forms of 'associative meaning': (i) extralinguistic-based, (ii) linguistic-based, and (iii) scalar implicature-based. It argues that scalar implicature in particular may be of three types: hyponymous, quasi-hyponymous, and pseudo-hyponymous. The paper begins with a basic definition of denotative and connotative meaning, and within connotative meaning of associative meaning. A formal model is provided for utterance-meaning, based around the notions of referent and ascription. This allows for a detailed formal analysis of extralinguistic- and linguistic-based associative meaning. The model is refined to address scalar implicature-based associative meaning, through a theory-based account of the distinction between ambiguity and indeterminacy, allowing for a formal analysis of 'some' and cardinal numbers. I also briefly consider a fourth type of associative meaning -- contextually determined associative meaning -- using Arabic examples, to illustrate the profound conventionality and language-specificity of the relevant aspects of meaning. Rather than providing a new account of how we understand the meaning of scalar implicatures, or other aspects of utterance-meaning, this paper adopts the standpoint that in order to understand how a hearer understands what an utterance means, we need to know first what it means; i.e. a coherent model of utterance-meaning is a sine qua non for the investigation of utterance cognition

Definiteness, genitives and two kinds of syntax in Standard Arabic

This article deals with Standard Arabic – i.e. the variety of Arabic including Classical and Modern Standard Arabic, regarded as a single synchronic entity (ignoring historical developments, which are, for current purposes, irrelevant). It considers the relationship between the -n of nunation (tanwīn) and the definite article al- (plus allomorphic variants). Henceforth, I shall for brevity refer to the -n of nunation (tanwīn) as -n and the definite article al- as al-. I consider first the relationship between al- and -n in relation to (i) standard triptote nouns, (ii) diptote nouns, (iii) non-declinable nouns, and (iv) dual and sound plural nouns, concluding that -n is neither simply an indefinite marker, as sometimes claimed (e.g. HOLES 1995: 41; BADAWI, CARTER and GULLY 2004: 96), nor an absolute state marker, as also claimed (e.g. LYONS 1999; RETSÖ 1984–1986; 2010), but has something of both functions. I go on to consider al- and -n in relation to (i) pronoun suffixes, and (ii) genitive annexes. I use the following terminology: annexion-head meaning roughly the same as muḍāf (cf. BADAWI, CARTER and GULLY 2004: 131) in traditional Arabic terminology (also termable annexed term, e.g. WATSON 1993: 173, or genitive head in English), and annex (WATSON 1993: 173) meaning roughly the same as muḍāfilay-hi (cf. BADAWI, CARTER and GULLY 2004: 131) (also termable genitive modifier in English). I argue that -n, al-, pronoun suffixes and genitive annexes commute with one another (incorporating also recursive elements), to give one form of syntax. In the linguistic model underpinning this paper – extended axiomatic functionalism (DICKINS 1998; 2009) – this can be termed lexotactic. I also show, however, that these structures can be subject to a second, different, form of syntactic analysis, in extended axiomatic-functionalism termed delotactic

On the non-necessity of levels in phonology, grammar and ‘abstract semantics’

This paper argues that the abstract levels which are typically recognised in linguistics -- whether within phonology (e.g. the levels of distinctive features, phonemics/phonematics, and phonotactics), grammar (e.g. morphology and syntax), or 'abstract semantics' -- are unnecessary. Although such levels correspond to an intuitively plausible model of natural languages, even natural languages are not fully constructed in the way these levels suggest, while other semiotic systems may be organisationally extremely different from the situation implied by these levels. In order to provide elegant (simple) and intuitively reasonable accounts of the relevant facts of language linguistic theories need to be significantly modified. 'Translating' into the specific technical terms of extended axiomatic functionnalism, the theory which is the focus of this paper, this means that the levels of ontidics (cenidics/phonidics, logidics/lexidics, delidics), ontematics (cenematics/phonematics, logematics/lexematics, delematics), and ontotactics (cenotactics/phonotactics, logotactics/lexotactics, delotactics) which are currently recognised in the system ontology of the theory are unnecessary. The entire theory of extended axiomatic functionalism, as well as the descriptions which it yields, can be simplified and made more coherent by removing these as separate theoretical levels, and recognising that their proper significance is as generalizing labels for describing how some kinds of semiotic systems -- and particularly natural languages -- are at least partially organised

Extended axiomatic functionalism: postulates

These postulates, comprising six axioms plus ensuing definitions, provide a formal account of the semiotic (including linguistic) theory of extended axiomatic functionalism. They are organised to be maximally comparable with Mulder and Hervey’s postulates for standard axiomatic functionalism. The axioms are the primitive statements of the theory, introducing new theoretical propositions. The definitions introduce technical terms by linking them to notions in the theory. Axiom A and ensuing definitions detail the functional principle, dominating both components of the theory: the system ontology and the signum ontology. The system ontology deals with the abstract semiotic entities in cenology (linguistics, phonology), logology (linguistics, lexology), and delology (denotational semantics). The signum ontology provides a set-theoretically based account of the relationship between system-ontological entities and semiotic occurrences (utterances). Axiom B and ensuing definitions treat almost all aspects of the system ontology, except para-ontotactics, Axiom C and ensuing definitions treat paraontotactics, and Axiom D and ensuing definitions detail the notion ‘sentence’ (the maximal unit covered by the theory). Axiom E and ensuing definitions principally treat the allontic level, while Axiom F and ensuing definitions treat remaining aspects of the signum ontology. Figure 1 Extended axiomatic functionalism: semiotics and Figure 2 Extended axiomatic functionalism: linguistics (at the end of the postulates) represent visually the main entities and notions of the theory

Two models for metaphor translation

This paper establishes both full and simplified models for the textual analysis of metaphor in a translation context (Section 1). I present the comparison theory of metaphor (Section 2), show how this can be integrated with the notions of lexicalization and non-lexicalization (Section 3) and consider the semantic purposes of metaphor (Section 4). The remainder of the paper focuses on the translation of metaphor, starting with more abstract langue-oriented notions. I offer a critique and revvision of Newmark’s (1988) metaphor typology (Section 5), and demonstrate how the revised typology can be integrated with the notions of lexicalizattion and non-lexicalization (Section 6). I then consider Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) model of metaphorical ‘schemata’, and propose ways in which this can also be integrated into an overall model (Section 7). I discuss the practiccal application of this model to Arabic–English translation (Section 8). In addition to langue-oriented notions, I suggest that a full account of metaphor for translation needs to take into account the more parole-orieented notion of the interaction of metaphors in texts. I consider the notions of metaphorical congruence (Section 9), and metaphorical exuberance and density. Illustrating my arguments with Arabic–English translation data, I suggest that in given registers, different languages may tolerate more or less metaphorical density and exuberance as well as different degrees of metapphorical mixing (Section 10). The paper concludes with a consideration of the kind of ‘Full Model’ one might build up for a detailed academic study of metaphor translation (Section 11)