The Effect of Land use/cover change on Biomass Stock in Dryland Areas of Eastern Uganda. A case study of Olio Sub-county in Soroti District

Drylands occupy 44% of Uganda’s land surface and provide livelihood to a cross-section of both rural and urban folks. However in the face of population pressure, drylands are increasingly in the path of conversion and degradation. This study therefore, performed an assessment of the effect of land use/cover change on biomass stock in olio sub-county from 1973 to 2001. A series of systematically corrected Orthorectified Landsat imageries of 1973, 1986 and 2001 obtained from the Landsat website were used. The images were analysed using  unsupervised approach in Integrated Land and Water Information System version 3.3 and validated using field observations and historic memories of village elders. Findings indicate that land use/cover change is driven by small-scale farming. Between 1973-1986 significant declines were identified among small-scale farming (23.2%), grasslands (8.7%) and large scale-farming (9.9%). Further, declines were also registered between 1986-2001 in Bushland (12.1%), woodlands (13.9%) and wetlands (8.2%) while dramatic gains were registered in small-scale farming by 19.4%. These declines led to losses in the available biomass stock by 2001 within bushlands, wetlands and woodlands loosing 29.1 million tons, 669.1 metric tons and 87.3 million tons respectively. We conclude that small-scale farming by resource poor farmers is rapidly transforming the vegetation landscape. Therefore, there is need for increased use of remote sensing and GIS to quantify change patterns at local scales for essential monitoring and assessment of land use and or/cover change effects and human interference on the landscape. @JASEMJ. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. December, 2010, Vol. 14 (4) 101 - 10

Diversity and spatial distribution of sorghum on farmers’ fields in Uganda

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is a food security crop in sub-Saharan Africa, which requires constant breeding in response to changes in the fragility of agricultural production environments. Hence, understanding and tenacious use of genetic variation in sorghum germplasm is essential for improving the crop to cope with environmental changes. The objective of this study was to determine the levels of diversity and spatial distribution of sorghum on farmers’ fields in major sorghum growing regions in Uganda. A survey involving 180 fields was conducted in three districts, namely Agago and Apac (northern) and Serere (eastern) all in Uganda. Diversity was measured in terms of number of accessions per field, the Shannon-Weaver and Simpson diversity indices. In order to assess spatial distribution of sorghum diversity on the fields, correlation analysis was carried out between diversity and geographical distances between fields. Overall, Agago district had the highest number of accessions per unit area (4.47); while Apac had the lowest (1.62). The spatial distribution of sorghum diversity showed a positive correlation (r = 0.381 for Agago, 0.124 for Apac and 0.081 for Serere), between geographical distances and diversity across the three districts; implying that fields close together share similar sorghum varieties. This can be due to sharing seeds between farmers within a given location. Sorghum diversity was spatially distributed in the fields, with fields close to each other shared most sorghum types. The levels of sorghum diversity on fields were highest in Agago and lowest in Apac district. The existing on-farm sorghum diversity offers the opportunity for improving sorghum through natural breeding against biotic and abiotic stresses. &nbsp

Impediments, opportunities and strategies to enhance trade of wild and semi-wild food plants in Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom, Uganda

This study examined the impediments, opportunities and strategies to enhance trade of wild and semiwild food plants (WSWFPs) in Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom, Uganda. Semi-structured questionnaire was administered face-to-face to sixty six (66) traders of WSWFPs in the formal markets: five (5) mobile hawkers and eleven (11) home-based/roadside traders. As a result of their small number, all traders that were found selling WSWFPs were interviewed. Data were analysed using simple descriptive statistics in excel spreadsheet and MINITAB statistical package. A number of challenges including high perishability, market dues, inaccurate consumers’ perceptions, seasonal shortfalls and unreliable supply, unorganized markets, little or no value addition, limited market information, and the inexistence of market promotional activities affected the trade in WSWFPs. However, the growing market demands, increasing focus of most service providers in creating awareness on WSWFPs, ever-changing perception on nutritional values of WSWFPs by the public, current government emphasis on value addition of traded agricultural products, little or no capital requirement for starting up trade in WSWFPs, and absence of restrictive regulations on sale of WSWFPs were regarded as good opportunities that could be exploited to enhance trade in WSWFPs. Key strategies for improved marketing WSWFPs included among other things, training gatherers and traders on value adding activities prior to sale, deliberate investment in promotional and awareness campaigns to expose the hidden benefits of WSWFPs, scrapping market dues levied on traders selling WSWFPs, helping gatherers and sellers to organise themselves to form viable supply and market groups, linking gatherers and sellers to good markets, as well as providing them with available market information. There is thus, a need for concerted efforts to implement some of these feasible marketing strategies to improve on the markets of WSWFPs in the kingdom.Key words: Wild edibles, wild food, semi-cultivated food, marketing wild food, Uganda

Physico-chemical, proximate, mineral and bioactive composition of Garcinia buchananii baker fruit from Uganda and Rwanda

Garcinia buchananii Baker (Family,Cluciaceae/Guttiferae) is an underutilized indigenous fruit tree that produces edible fruits that are used as both  food and medicine in tropical Africa. This study evaluated the physical and chemical characteristics of G. buchananii fruits collected from Uganda  and Rwanda. Ripe fruits were harvested during their peak seasons in Masaka and Bugesera Districts in Uganda and Rwanda, respectively. The fruits  were analyzed for physical characteristics including; fruit weight, fruit size (that is length and width), number of seeds per fruit, seed weight, seed  dimensions(length, width and breadth); chemical characteristics (pH and titratable acidity), proximate composition (moisture content, protein, fat,  dietary fibre, carbohydrates and energy), mineral composition (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cu), and bioactive components (total phenolic compounds,  flavonoids and anthocyanins; and antioxidant activity). Data were statistically analyzed using a student T-test (p≤0.05). The results indicated that fruit  weight and pulp content ranged from 6.3±1.3-9.5±2.8g and 54.1±10.6- 81.1±6.5%, respectively. Titratable acidity of the pulp ranged from  6.1±0.8 to 7.1±0.1 %. Nutritionally, dietary fibre, vitamin C, iron and zinc ranged from 20.0±0.4 -22.6±1.8 g/100g, 32.8±3.2-42.0±3.3 mg/100g, 4.8±0.2  - 6.5±0.8 mg/100g and 1.1±0.0 -2.5±0.1 mg/100g, respectively. The total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity ranged from 996.7±50.5 -  1147.5±47.4 mg/g GAE (Garlic Acid Equivalent) and 8.0±0.2- 8.4±0.1 mg/100g AAE (Ascorbic Acid Equivalent) as IC50, respectively. There was a  significant difference (p≤0.05) in the physical characteristics (weight, length, width and breadth), nutritional composition and bioactive components  of the fruit samples of the two countries. Assessment of the nutrients indicated that the pulp was rich in vitamin C, iron, zinc, copper and dietary  fibre. The pulp also contained phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity. The seeds had 6-24% crude oil content with palmitic, stearic, oleic and  linoleic as major fatty acids. The total unsaturated fatty acids in the seed oil ranged from 58.4-59.5%. Although this finding showed significant  differences (P≤0.05) in the physical and chemical of G. buchananii fruit from Uganda and Rwanda, the nutritional composition and bioactive  component information has shown the potential of the fruits for processing into high-value nutraceuticals.&nbsp

REGIONAL CLIMATE MODEL PERFORMANCE AND PREDICTION oF SEASONAL RAINFALL AND SURFACE TEMPERATURE oF UGANDA

Knowledge about future climate provides valuable insights into how the challenges posed by climate change and variability can be addressed. This study assessed the skill of the United Kingdom (UK) Regional Climate Model (RCM) PRECIS (Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies) in simulating rainfall and temperature over Uganda and also assess future impacts of climate when forced by an ensemble of two Global Climate Models (GCMs) for the period 2070-2100. Results show that the models captured fairly well the large scale flow signals influencing rainfall and temperature patterns over Uganda. Rainfall and temperature patterns were better resolved by the RCM than the GCMs. The rainfall and temperature patterns differed among the three seasons. Rainy season March to May (MAM) is likely to experience increment in both surface temperature (0.9\ub0 C) and rainfall (0.2 mm day-1). For September to october (SON) rainy season, an opposite trend in the two climate parameters, temperature and rainfall, will be registered with the former increasing by 0.9 \ub0C and the latter dropping by 0.7 mm day-1. For the dry season, June to August (JJA), both temperature and rainfall are projected to decrease by 0.3 \ub0 C and 0.4 mm day-1, respectively.La connaissance du climat de demain fournit un aper\ue7u sur la mani\ue8re dont les d\ue9fis pos\ue9s peuvent \ueatre adress\ue9s. Cette \ue9tude a \ue9valu\ue9 la comp\ue9tence du Mod\ue8le Climatique R\ue9gional (RCM) PRECIS du Royaume Uni (fournissant des climats r\ue9gionaux pour des \ue9tudes d\u2019impacts) dans la simulation de la pluviom\ue9trie et la temp\ue9rature en ouganda et, d\u2019autre part, \ue9tudier les impacts des climats une fois forc\ue9e par un ensemble de deux Mod\ue8les Climatiques \ue0 l\u2019\ue9chelle de l\u2019Univers (GCMs) pour les p\ue9riodes 2070-2100. Les r\ue9sultats montrent que les mod\ue8les ont raisonnablement saisi une large \ue9chelle du flow des signaux qui influencent la tendance de la pluviom\ue9trie et la temp\ue9rature en ouganda. Les tendances de la pluviom\ue9trie et la temp\ue9rature \ue9taient mieux d\ue9termin\ue9es par RCM que GCMs. Les tendances de la pluviom\ue9trie et la temp\ue9rature diff\ue9raient au cours des trois saisons. La saison pluvieuse Mars \ue0 Mai (MAM) connaitra probablement une augmentation de la temp\ue9rature (0.9 \ub0C) et de la pluviom\ue9trie (0.2 mm jr-1). Pour la saison de pluie de Septembre \ue0 octobre, une tendance contraire dans les deux param\ue8tres climatiques sera enregistr\ue9e avec la m\ueame augmentation de 0.9 \ub0C et une diminution de 0.7 mm jr-1de pluie. Pour la saison s\ue8che de Juin \ue0 Ao\ufbt (JJA), les projections montrent une diminution de la temp\ue9rature et de la pluie de 0.3 \ub0C et 0.4 mm jr-1, respectivement

VEGETATION BIOMASS PREDICTION IN THE CATTLE CORRIDOR OF UGANDA

Pastoralists in Sub-Saharan Africa face complex problems notably frequent and severe droughts. This study was conducted in the cattle corridor of Uganda, a largely semiarid area to estimate the likely vegetative biomass production under the 2O71-2100 projected rainfall conditions. Spatio-temporal pattern of vegetative biomass production were determined by analysis of the seasonal variation of Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for 10 years from 2001-2010. A biomass relationship was established between the NDVI and the Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI); and used to project the period 2071-2100 NDVI using downscaled rainfall for the cattle corridor. A change trajectory performed on the annual means revealed the highest increase in vegetation in 2008 (0.031) and decrease in 2009 (-0.022). The SPI revealed two main droughts that were established to have occurred in the years of 2004 - 2005 and 2008-2009. The wettest year was 2003 and corresponded with the increase in NDVI. A strong positive correlation of rainfall and vegetation was established (r=0.99). Precipitation has influenced vegetative biomass in the cattle corridor as there is a positive correlation between precipitation and the vegetative biomass production. Secondly, vegetation is likely to be concentrated in areas that will have high precipitation in 2070-2100, such as Luwero and the districts south of it of the cattle corridor compared to those in the north of the cattle corridor of Uganda.Les \ue9leveurs en Afrique Sub-saharienne se confrontent aux probl\ue8mes complexes notamment les s\ue9cheresses fr\ue9quentes et plus graves. Cette \ue9tude a \ue9t\ue9 men\ue9e dans le corridor du b\ue9tail de l\u2019ouganda, une r\ue9gion largement semi-aride pour estimer la production susceptible de biomasse v\ue9g\ue9tale sous les conditions pluviom\ue9triques projet\ue9es en 2071-2100. Le mod\ue8le spatio-temporel de production de biomasse v\ue9g\ue9tale a \ue9t\ue9 d\ue9termin\ue9 par l\u2019analyse de la variation saisonni\ue8re de l\u2019Indice de V\ue9g\ue9tation par Diff\ue9rence Normalis\ue9e (NDVI) pendant 10 ans dans l\u2019intervalle de temps 2001-2010. Une relation de biomasse a \ue9t\ue9 \ue9tablie entre l\u2019indice de v\ue9g\ue9tation NDVI et l\u2019indice de pr\ue9cipitations normalis\ue9 (SPI), et elle est utilis\ue9e pour projeter le NDVI de la p\ue9riode 2071-2100 en utilisant les pr\ue9cipitations \ue0 \ue9chelle r\ue9duite pour le corridor du b\ue9tail. Une trajectoire de changement effectu\ue9e sur les moyennes annuelles a r\ue9v\ue9l\ue9 la plus forte augmentation de la v\ue9g\ue9tation en 2008 (0.031) et une diminution en 2009 (-0.022). Le SPI a r\ue9v\ue9l\ue9 deux principales s\ue9cheresses qui ont \ue9t\ue9 \ue9tablies pour avoir eu lieu dans les ann\ue9es 2004 - 2005 et 2008-2009. L\u2019ann\ue9e la plus humide \ue9tait 2OO3 et correspondait \ue0 une augmentation de l\u2019indice de v\ue9g\ue9tation NDVI. Une forte corr\ue9lation positive entre les pr\ue9cipitations et la v\ue9g\ue9tation a \ue9t\ue9 \ue9tablie (r = 0.99). Les pr\ue9cipitations ont influenc\ue9 la biomasse v\ue9g\ue9tale dans le corridor du b\ue9tail, car il existe une corr\ue9lation positive entre les pr\ue9cipitations et la production de la biomasse v\ue9g\ue9tale. Deuxi\ue8mement, la v\ue9g\ue9tation est susceptible d\u2019\ueatre concentr\ue9e dans les zones qui auront de fortes pr\ue9cipitations en 2070-2100, comme Luwero et les districts du Sud de celui-ci du corridor du b\ue9tail par rapport \ue0 ceux dans le nord du corridor du b\ue9tail de l\u2019ouganda

New organizational forms in emerging economies: bridging the gap between agribusiness management and international development

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Emerald via the DOI in this recordPurpose: This editorial article introduces and analyzes a variety of new organizational forms that rapidly emerged in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe in the latest two decades. Among the others, these include: business model partnerships, business platforms, incubators and hubs, public–private partnerships, agribusiness companies' foundations and spin-offs, short supply chains, community-supported agriculture and other community self-organizing experiences. Building upon the recent literature and the five selected papers in this special issue, the authors discuss what is novel in these organizations and why, when and how they emerge and evolve over time. Design/methodology/approach: The authors identify three elements that, when considered together, explain and predict the emergence and evolution of these new organizational forms: institutions, strategies and learning processes. Findings: The authors demonstrate that societal actors seeking to (re)design these new organizational forms need to consider these three elements to combine the pursuit of their interests of their own constituencies with the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Originality/value: Taking stock from the literature, the authors invite future research on new organizational forms to take explicitly the pursuit of the SDGs into consideration; to build upon a process ontology; and to deeply reflect on our positionality of scientists studying and sometimes engaging in these organizations

Stepping-stones to improve upon functioning of participatory agricultural extension programmes : farmer field schools in Uganda

This thesis deals with Farmer Field Schools (FFS) inUganda.FFSis a grassroots learning and application device for technological improvements in agriculture, primarily aimed at resource-poor farmers. It is rooted by background in pest management (IPM) but is also a group learning approach based on doing. The specific role ofFFSis to provide a practical framework through which generative, adaptive and observation-based learning can develop, specific to local problems and opportunities.This thesis analyses the functioning ofFFSwithin the wider set of programmes, organisations and institutions aimed at crop improvement, i.e. the agricultural innovation system. TheFFSis studied with technographic methods. Technography is asystematic description and analysis of the interaction of human agents, tools, techniques and technical processes, i.e. it is the study of instrumentality within the broader field of ethnography.FFSclaims to be able to form new technical knowledge "in situ" through a modified self-help approach (using local resources of time and energy).The introduction ofFFSin Uganda fits within a wider national and international development agenda, an agenda driven by Poverty Reduction Strategic Plans/Papers (PRSP) and the (wider) Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) that put emphasis on community participation in development activities. There is concern that the increasing levels of poverty in the developing world,Africain particular, are attributed to powerlessness, social exclusion and lack of opportunity of the masses (especially the rural poor) in actively influencing programmes or projects that affect their lives. After a general introduction of the topic, major issues and research approach in chapter one, the thesis continues with an empirical analysis of fiveFFSprojects, operating in the districts of Soroti, Busia, Tororo, Kumi, Iganga (eastern Uganda), Mukono and Kiboga (central Uganda) formed the empirical cases underlying this study. The main highlights of findings generated through an intensive and prolonged contact with the field from January 2003 through December 2005 are presented in common themes, identified across the five projects. This not only minimises repetition across projects and districts but it also gives a clearer view on the processes that determine the performance ofFFS. The main findings are organised in four empirical chapters.Chapter two displays an analysis of the national and international development strategies in relation to the introduction of FFS inUganda, i.e. a political economy of donors, agricultural institutes and other actors in agricultural research and extension services. The focus is on the actors and their roles in the operation or implementation of UgandanFFS. Actors, activities and roles at international, national and local levels were analysed. Because of the participatory background ofFFS, interest was how farmers or the local levels got actively engaged inFFSactivities at all levels. In spite of the participatory background,FFSdid not translate well in the Ugandan context. The local level actors did not take active part in the identification and prioritization of problems addressed inFFSinterventions. Decisions were already made from above (by donors and researchers) with traditional structures and functioning remaining strong in shaping interactions and focus ofFFS. Farmers had no negotiation capacity/power to influence the agenda towards addressing their interests given that objectives, problems, and technology were pre-defined from above. This contradicted the basis ofFFSwhere farmers' participation was to influence technology development. The implementation process was top-down with farmers remaining at the receiving end and researchers remaining at the giving end. This turnsFFSinto a platform where researchers promote their mandates and interests rather than actually addressing farmers' interests.Chapter three further zooms in on mobilisation of actors and instruments. Technology is a central element around which actors are mobilised. From a technographic perspective, technologytypically involves a nexus of human agents, tools, instruments and processes, and associated knowledge. In order to arrive at how the nexus of technology and society in rural Uganda advanced, specific types of technologies or interventions covered underFFSin Uganda, the rationale for choice of specific technological intervention points, and the mobilisation process involving facilitators and farmers were analysed. Findingssuggest thatFFSis adapted to disseminate what is already in stock rather than to develop technologies that suit current local realities. Choice of existing technologies based on the criteria of major cash or food crop as opposed to in-situ technology development and mobilisation of specific elite farmers capable of showing results all point towards stimulating effective adoption of introduced technologies. The process through which facilitators were prepared did not translate into building competence of extension workers in understanding and analysing local contexts in which the technologies were to be introduced but strengthened the technology transfer model. The orientation towards dissemination of technology in stock rather than participatory technology development and discovery based learning fitted the top-down instructional biases of research and extension institutions.Mobilisation of farmers perceived to be hard-working maintained the conventional community mobilization method that extension workers used to ensure success of a project. Focus on elites raises a fundamental issue about the inclusiveness and relevance of introduced technologies to the farming system of the targeted community. The tendency is to increase marginalization of the already disadvantaged category of people in a community.Chapter four examines howFFSinterventions fitted or matched the local contexts within which they were introduced. What goes on in the local farming practices with respect to the crops targeted inFFS, social system or practices of the farmers and farmers' response toFFSinterventions were analysed. According the findings,FFSinterventions did not match well the local farming and social system of the communities in which they were introduced. Although farmers are keen learners, constantly looking out for opportunities to improve upon their way of life, they do not, in all circumstances, take up technological inputs from external sources. The main reason lies in the difference of focus. Whereas researchers are more interested in improved yields and resistance to pests (targeting commercial orientation), farmers (especially subsistence oriented, who form the majority) are more interested in palatability and compatibility with local available resources like labour, time, land, cost as well as daily practices. Besides, farmers face various problems and their perception of priority issues vary. What is observed as a problem or solution in a researcher's perception is not necessarily the problem or solution in farmers' perspective. For instance, farmers perceived health and income generating activities as issues of higher priority yet throughFFS, low crop yields was the issue. Gender, has a general and cultural dimension. Inspite of more women than men inFFS, the men dominated most discussions and activities inFFS. Yet most agricultural activities were carried out by women. The patrilineal system where men own household assets and are the main decision makers in the home affects operation and impact ofFFS.In chapter five a closer look is given to organisational features on the ground and how that relates to other local initiatives and structures higher up in theFFSorganisation.This chapter gives an analytic description of features known as agro-ecosystem analysis, energizers, field tours, field visits and field days, as a major tool for keeping up an appearance of close and effective interaction between the lower and higher level structures. It also describes the linkage or integration ofFFSwith other local structures and activities. In spite of the centrality ofAgro ecosystem analysis (AESA) in the local or internal organisation ofFFS, the process and objective of AESA was not internalised or clearly understood by farmers and facilitators. The integration process ofFFSwith other outside actors was unidirectional and not two-way, with lower levels being accountable to higher levels and not vice versa. The nature of the reporting system translated reports into technical documents, resulting in a narrow technical accountability to researchers and funders. The field days turned out to be activities where project implementers sought back-up from higher authorities, to justify existence and funding. Field tours and visits were perceived differently by the two levels. The aim at the higher level was to expose farmers to other technologies while farmers seized on trips to broaden their social horizons. When using different methods to integrate lower levels and higher levels there is need for a clear objective and strategy to reshapeFFSinto a participatory model serving interests or concerns at both levels.The final and concluding chapter comes with an overall identification ofFFSin the Ugandan context as resulting from the technographic approach used in this thesis. The key lesson, addressed to researchers, is to put into consideration farmers' perceived priority issues besides project objectives ifFFSis to realise the expected people based development. This implies the need for actors, especially at higher levels, to revisit and change the institutional thinking and functioning in a way that creates space for farmers' as active players for their own destination and hence development. The need to understand and analyse local contexts (what farmers locally do and think in farming and social practices) is important if new interventions are to be useful to the people for whom it is intended.In general, althoughFFSmakes a better, more creative and challenging connection between scientists, extensionists and farmers than was achieved under the earlier extension systems it replaced, findings in this study lead to a general conclusion that the way in whichFFSwas implemented has failed adequately to re-orient agricultural extension systems in Uganda towards being effective and responsive to local people's problems

Influence Of Farmer Production Goals On Cowpea Pest Management In Eastern Uganda: Implications For Developing IPM Programmes

We investigated using a case study the influence of differing production goals on cowpea production and pest management practices. The cases (farmers) were characterised as commercial, dual purpose and subsistence depending on the primary goal of production. Production goal influenced cowpea acreage, varietal choice, seasonal planting, perception of problematic pests, and stage and frequency of pesticide application. Farmers preferred to use pesticides, as the primary method of pest control, because they insured a marketable crop, were associated with yield increases, permitted two season cropping, and reduced demand for labour at labour peaks during the cropping season. Pesticides were used by the majority of farmers in the area. The only limitations to pesticide use were local availability and cost. Besides the use of pesticides farmers had local knowledge on alternative methods for controlling pests such as early planting, variety choice, weeding, leaf picking and intercropping. Generally, farmers were unknowledgeable (or uniformed) about cowpea diseases. Future research should seek to introduce resistant varieties; investigate efficacy, timing and rate of pesticide application; and, educate farmers regarding proper pesticide use and safety.Nous avons examin\ue9 en utilisant une \ue9tude de cas, l\u2019influence des diff\ue9rents objectifs de production du ni\ue9b\ue9 et les pratiques de gestion des pestes. Les cas (agriculteurs) \ue9taient caract\ue9ris\ue9s comme commerciaux, double objectifs et subsistance d\ue9pendant de l\u2019objectif primaire de production. L\u2019objectif de production influen\ue7ait la superficie emblav\ue9e par le ni\ue9b\ue9, le choix vari\ue9tal, la plantation saisonni\ue8re, la perception du probl\ue9matique des pestes, le stade et la fr\ue9quence d\u2019application des pesticides. Les agriculteurs pr\ue9f\ue9rraient l\u2019utilisation des pesticides comme m\ue9thodes primaires de gestion de pestes parce qu\u2019ils assurent une culture commercialisable, \ue9taient assoc\ue9es \ue0 l\u2019augmentation des rendements, permettent deux saisons culturales, et r\ue9duisent la main d\u2019oeuvre aux p\ue9riodes de pointe des travaux durant la saison culturale. Les pesticides \ue9taient utilis\ue9s par la majorit\ue9 des agriculteurs dans la r\ue9gion. Les seules limitations d\u2019usage des pesticides \ue9taient la disponibilit\ue9 locale et le co\ue9t. En plus de l\u2019utilisation des pesticides les agriculteurs avaient une connaissance locale sur les m\ue9thodes alternatives de contr\uf4le des pestes telles que la plantation pr\ue9coce, le choix vari\ue9tal, le sarclage, le ramassage de feuille et l\u2019association des cultures. G\ue9n\ue9rallement les agriculteurs n\u2019\ue9taient pas au courant des maladies du ni\ue9b\ue9. La recherche future devra chercher \ue0 introduire des vari\ue9t\ue9s r\ue9sistantes, \ue9tudier l\u2019efficacit\ue9, le temps et le taux d\u2019application des pesticides, et \ue9duquer les agriculteurs sur l\u2019utilisation propre et la s\ue9curit\ue9 de pesticides