Estimation des propriétés de rétention en eau des sols à partir de la base de données SOLHYDRO : Une première proposition combianant le type d'horizon, sa texture et sa densité apparente.: Une première proposition combinant le type d'horizon, sa texture et sa densité apparente

Mis en ligne avec l'aimable autorisation de l'éditeurLa base de donnée SOLHYDRO regroupe un ensemble de mesures des propriétés de rétention en eau acquis en France sur des horizons de sol en fonction de leurs caractéristiques. Dans un premier temps, des valeurs de teneur en eau volumique à 7 potentiels de l'eau variant de -10 (01,0) à -1500 (O4,2) hPa sont proposées en utilisant le type d'horizon (horizons A d'une part, horizons E, B et C d'autre part) et sa texture. Dans un second temps, pour accroître la précision et réduire le biais lors de l'estimation, des valeurs de teneur en eau volumique sont proposées en utilisant cette fois le type d'horizon, sa texture et sa densité apparente. Une estimation par excès et par défaut de la réserve en eau utile est aussi proposée dans chaque cas. Ces différents jeux de valeurs constituent une première proposition qui a vocation à être précisée et élargie lorsque la base SOLHYDRO disposera d'un nombre de données supplémentaires suffisant

L'émergence d'un principe de justice distributive en droit international économique : analyse de l'évolution du traitement spécial et différencié du GATT à l'OMC

La libéralisation des échanges a fait augmenter les richesses, mais en réalité, elles se sont concentrées dans les pays développés. La question de la distribution plus équitable des richesses s'est rapidement posée. Le système GATT/OMC a joué un rôle décisif dans la libéralisation des échanges et dans l'articulation des rapports entre les pays développés et les pays en développement (PED). L'émergence et l'incarnation juridique dans le système GATT/OMC d'un principe de justice distributive passe par l'évolution du traitement spécial et différencié (TSD). Sous le GATT, le TSD s'est d'abord manifesté par l'article XVIII et la Partie IV du GATT de 1947, la Clause d'habilitation et le Système de préférences de 1971. Le TSD ainsi proposé appartenait essentiellement à la sof law et a échoué dans sa tentative d'intégrer les PED au système SCM. Sous l'OMC, le TSD a changé de paradigme et de mandat. Le TSD est passé d'un outil voué à mettre au développement des PED à un mécanisme employé à aider les PED à mettre en œuvre les nouvelles politiques de libéralisation découlant des accords de l'OMC. Les dispositions TSD seront alors dispersées dans l'ensemble des accords de l'OMC, mais sans jamais transcender la forme «soft law» qui les caractérisait sous le GATT. L'échec de la Conférence de Seattle, en 1999, engendrera le «Programme de Doha pour le développement», en 2001. La Déclaration de Doha était alors perçue comme l'incarnation de la transformation de l'OMC en organisation qui se préoccupe désormais de justice distributive. En observant de près le texte de la Déclaration de Doha et en analysant sa valeur juridique, on ne constate pas de progrès significatifs. Encore une fois, les mesures proposées le sont sous forme de déclarations d'intention et de promesses, voire d'engagement à négocier. Actuellement, le Cycle de Doha tarde à aboutir et tout nous porte à croire que l'avènement de l'OMC n'a pas concrétisé la volonté des PED d'une répartition plus équitable des richesses.Developed Countries are the main beneficiaries of Economic liberalism and reductions of tariffs. The GATT/WTO System played a key role in the global economic growth and in the re1ationship between Deve10ping Countries and Developed Countries. In the GATT/WOT System, the legal translation of Distributive Justice is represented by Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) in favour of Developing Countries. During the GATT (1947-1994), the most important SDT provisions were Article XVIII and Part IV of the 1947 GATT, the Enabling Clause and the Generalized Preferential System of 1971. Notwithstanding the GATT'S efforts, the STD was not efficient enough to he1p the situation of Developing Countries and was mostly considered as Soft Law. Under the WTO, the STD evolved and his mandate was modified. In fact, the STD became a tool to he1p Deve10ping Countries adopted the new WTO obligations, rather than being a tool for deve1opment. It is true that STD Measures during the Uruguay Round were spread through all of the Uruguay Round's Acts, but they never succeeded in coming out of the Soft Law stage. Following the Seattle Conference held in 1999, the WTO Members adopted the Doha Declaration and named the new Round of negotiation the «Doha Deve10pment Round». Initially, the Doha Declaration was perceived as a transformation of the WTO in a Distributive Organization. Rapidly, after studying the Round's Texts, it became obvious that, although the WTO had shown some openness towards Developing Countries' preoccupations and Distributive Justice, the Doha Declaration was in the direct continuity of the GATT. The SDT dispositions at Doha were still part of Soft Law and were mostly undertakings to negotiate in the future. At the present time, the Doha Program for Development is indefinite1y suspended. So far, the Doha Round did not meet the Deve10ping Countries' Expectations

Performance de fonctions de pédotransfert nationales et européennes pour prédire les propriétés de rétention en eau des sols.

National audienceLes modèles qui simulent les transferts couplés d'eau et de solutés dans les sols requièrent la connaissance des propriétés hydriques de leurs différents horizons. Ces propriétés ne sont généralement connues que pour un nombre restreint de sols en raison de la lourdeur des protocoles utilisés pour leur détermination. C'est pourquoi des outils de prédiction ont été développés. Ces outils, dénommés « fonctions de pédotransfert » (FPT), relient les propriétés hydriques à des propriétés du sol beaucoup plus aisément accessibles comme la teneur en argile, la teneur en carbone organique ou encore la densité apparente (Bouma, 1989 ; van Genuchten et Leij, 1992). Beaucoup de fonctions de pédotransfert ont été développées pour les propriétés de rétention en eau durant les trois dernières décennies. Les FPT ont été le plus souvent établies par régression multilinéaire et correspondent alors à autant de modèles empiriques décrivant de façon continue (FPTC) la relation pouvant exister entre les caractéristiques du sol (composition granulométrique teneur en carbone organique ou matière organique, densité apparente) et ses propriétés de rétention en eau. A côté de ces relations statistiques qui sont des fonctions de pédotransfert au sens strict, d'autres types d'outils ont aussi été développés. Il s'agit des « classes de fonctions de pédotransfert » (CFPT) qui permettent d'estimer les propriétés hydriques après avoir regroupé et classé les sols selon leur composition (Bruand et al., 2003 et 2004 ; Wösten et al., 1999)

Comparaison de fonctions de pédotransfert nationales et européennes pour prédire les propriétés de rétention en eau des sols

National audienceParmi les nombreuses fonctions de pédotransfert (FPT) qui ont été développées depuis plusieurs dizaines d'année, les classes de fonctions de pédotransfert (CFPT) n'ont fait l'objet que d'un nombre très limité d'études car leurs performances sont généralement considérées comme étant très limitées. A l'opposé, les fonctions de pédotransfert continues (FPTC), qui permettent une prédiction des propriétés de rétention en eau en rendant compte de façon continue de la variation des caractéristiques de composition du sol, ont fait l'objet de nombreux travaux. Dans cette étude, nous discutons les performances de CFPT et FPTC établies à partir de la base de données nationale SOLHYDRO 1.0 et nous les comparons à celles obtenues avec des CFPT et FPTC établies avec la base de données européenne HYPRES. Les résultats montrent que, excepté pour les CFPT développées avec la base européenne HYPRES, les biais obtenus sont faibles à très faibles (-0,013 ≤ EMP ≤ 0,016 cm3.cm-3). Il n'y a pas, par conséquent, de différence sensible de qualité des fonctions de pédotransfert en terme de biais de prédiction en fonction des CFPT et FPTC utilisées. Les CFPT texturales développées avec SOLHYDRO 1.0 qui sont de simples jeux de valeurs moyennes de teneur en eau volumique pour chaque classe de texture conduisent à des prédictions de qualité analogue à celle obtenue avec les autres CFPT et FPTC testées, celles-ci étant toutes plus sophistiquées et plus exigeantes quant au nombre et à la nature des caractéristiques de sols requises par la prédiction. Concernant cette fois la précision, des différences importantes apparaissent en fonction des CFPT et FPTC utilisées. On enregistre une meilleure précision avec les CFPT et FPTC développées avec la base de données SOLHYDRO 1.0 (0,038 ≤ ETP ≤ 0,045 cm3.cm-3) par rapport à celle enregistrée avec les CFPT et FPTC développées avec HYPRES (0,050 ≤ ETP ≤ 0,060 cm3.cm-3). De telles valeurs de précision n'en demeurent pas moins faibles quelle que soit la base de données utilisée. Enfin, concernant l'apport de la prise en compte couplée par des CFPT de la composition granulométrique et de la structure, par l'intermédiaire respectivement de la texture et de la densité apparente, les résultats obtenus dans cette étude ne montrent pas d'amélioration très sensible de la prédiction comme permettaient de l'envisager les résultats enregistrés antérieurement

Use of neuraminidase inhibitors in primary health care during pandemic and seasonal influenza between 2009 and 2013: Outpatient influenza antiviral treatment

International audienceBACKGROUND:In a context of controversy about influenza antiviral treatments, this study assessed primary health-care physicians' prescription of neuraminidase inhibitors (NIs) in France during pandemic and seasonal influenza between 2009 and 2013.METHODS:This observational study, using data recorded in three national databases, estimated the rate of NI prescription among influenza-like illness (ILI) patients seen in GP and paediatrician consultations, and determined factors associated with this prescription according to a multivariate analysis. NI delivery by pharmacists was also evaluated.RESULTS:Rates of NI prescription were estimated to be 61.1% among ILI patients with a severe influenza risk factor seen in GP consultation during the A(H1N1)pdm2009 pandemic versus an average rate of 25.9% during the three following seasonal influenza epidemics. Factors associated with NI prescription were a chronic disease in patients under 65 years (OR 14.85; 95% CI 13.00, 16.97) and in those aged 65 and older (OR 7.54; 5.86, 9.70), an age ≥65 years in patients without chronic disease (OR 1.35; 1.04, 1.74), a pregnancy (OR 10.63; 7.67, 15.76), obesity (OR 4.67; 3.50, 6.22) and a consultation during the pandemic A(H1N1)pdm2009 (OR 3.19; 2.93, 3.48). The number of antiviral treatments delivered by pharmacists during the A(H1N1)pdm2009 pandemic was 835 per 100,000 inhabitants, and an average of 275 per 100,000 inhabitants during the three following seasonal influenza epidemics.CONCLUSIONS:Although physicians seem to follow the recommended indications for NIs in primary health-care practice, this study confirms the low rate of NI prescription to ILI patients with a severe influenza risk factor, especially during seasonal epidemics

Functional Analysis of the PgCesA3 White Spruce Cellulose Synthase Gene Promoter in Secondary Xylem

Cellulose is an essential structural component of the plant cell wall. Its biosynthesis involves genes encoding cellulose synthase enzymes and a complex transcriptional regulatory network. Three cellulose synthases have been identified in conifers as being potentially involved in secondary cell wall biosynthesis because of their preferential expression in xylem tissues; however, no direct functional association has been made to date. In the present work, we characterized the white spruce [Picea glauca (Moench) Voss] cellulose synthase PgCesA3 gene and 5′ regulatory elements. Phylogenetic analysis showed that PgCesA1-3 genes grouped with secondary cell wall-associated Arabidopsis cellulose synthase genes, such as AtCesA8, AtCesA4, and AtCesA7. We produced transgenic spruce expressing the GUS reporter gene driven by the PgCesA3 promoter. We observed blue staining in differentiating xylem cells from stem and roots, and in foliar guard cells indicating that PgCesA3 is clearly involved in secondary cell wall biosynthesis. The promoter region sequence of PgCesA3 contained several putative MYB cis-regulatory elements including AC-I like motifs and secondary wall MYB-responsive element (SMRE); however, it lacked SMRE4, 7 and 8 that correspond to the sequences of AC-I, II, and III. Based on these findings and results of previous transient trans-activation assays that identified interactions between the PgCesA3 promoter and different MYB transcription factors, we performed electrophoretic mobility shift assays with MYB recombinant proteins and cis-regulatory elements present in the PgCesA3 promoter. We found that PgMYB12 bound to a canonical AC-I element identified in the Pinus taeda PAL promoter and two AC-I like elements. We hypothesized that the PgMYB12 could regulate PgCesA3 in roots based on previous expression results. This functional study of PgCesA3 sequences and promoter opens the door for future studies on the interaction between PgMYBs and the PgCesA3 regulatory elements

Sub-microscopic malaria cases and mixed malaria infection in a remote area of high malaria endemicity in Rattanakiri province, Cambodia: implication for malaria elimination

BACKGROUND: Malaria microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests are insensitive for very low-density parasitaemia. This insensitivity may lead to missed asymptomatic sub-microscopic parasitaemia, a potential reservoir for infection. Similarly, mixed infections and interactions between Plasmodium species may be missed. The objectives were first to develop a rapid and sensitive PCR-based diagnostic method to detect low parasitaemia and mixed infections, and then to investigate the epidemiological importance of sub-microscopic and mixed infections in Rattanakiri Province, Cambodia. METHODS: A new malaria diagnostic method, using restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the cytochrome b genes of the four human Plasmodium species and denaturing high performance liquid chromatography, has been developed. The results of this RFLP-dHPLC method have been compared to 1) traditional nested PCR amplification of the 18S rRNA gene, 2) sequencing of the amplified fragments of the cytochrome b gene and 3) microscopy. Blood spots on filter paper and Giemsa-stained blood thick smears collected in 2001 from 1,356 inhabitants of eight villages of Rattanakiri Province have been analysed by the RFLP-dHPLC method and microscopy to assess the prevalence of sub-microscopic and mixed infections. RESULTS: The sensitivity and specificity of the new RFLP-dHPLC was similar to that of the other molecular methods. The RFLP-dHPLC method was more sensitive and specific than microscopy, particularly for detecting low-level parasitaemia and mixed infections. In Rattanakiri Province, the prevalences of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax were approximately two-fold and three-fold higher, respectively, by RFLP-dHPLC (59% and 15%, respectively) than by microscopy (28% and 5%, respectively). In addition, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae were never detected by microscopy, while they were detected by RFLP-dHPLC, in 11.2% and 1.3% of the blood samples, respectively. Moreover, the proportion of mixed infections detected by RFLP-dHPLC was higher (23%) than with microscopy (8%). CONCLUSIONS: The rapid and sensitive molecular diagnosis method developed here could be considered for mass screening and ACT treatment of inhabitants of low-endemicity areas of Southeast Asia

Simulation Modifies Prehension: Evidence for a Conjoined Representation of the Graspable Features of an Object and the Action of Grasping It

Movement formulas, engrams, kinesthetic images and internal models of the body in action are notions derived mostly from clinical observations of brain-damaged subjects. They also suggest that the prehensile geometry of an object is integrated in the neural circuits and includes the object's graspable characteristics as well as its semantic properties. In order to determine whether there is a conjoined representation of the graspable characteristics of an object in relation to the actual grasping, it is necessary to separate the graspable (low-level) from the semantic (high-level) properties of the object. Right-handed subjects were asked to grasp and lift a smooth 300-g cylinder with one hand, before and after judging the level of difficulty of a “grasping for pouring” action, involving a smaller cylinder and using the opposite hand. The results showed that simulated grasps with the right hand exert a direct influence on actual motor acts with the left hand. These observations add to the evidence that there is a conjoined representation of the graspable characteristics of the object and the biomechanical constraints of the arm

Gaining Greater Insight into HCV Emergence in HIV-Infected Men Who Have Sex with Men: The HEPAIG Study

OBJECTIVES: The HEPAIG study was conducted to better understand Hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission among human immuno-deficiency (HIV)-infected men who have sex with men (MSM) and assess incidence of HCV infection among this population in France. METHODS AND RESULTS: Acute HCV infection defined by anti-HCV or HCV ribonucleic acid (RNA) positivity within one year of documented anti-HCV negativity was notified among HIV-infected MSM followed up in HIV/AIDS clinics from a nationwide sampling frame. HIV and HCV infection characteristics, HCV potential exposures and sexual behaviour were collected by the physicians and via self-administered questionnaires. Phylogenetic analysis of the HCV-NS5B region was conducted. HCV incidence was 48/10 000 [95% Confidence Interval (CI):43-54] and 36/10 000 [95% CI: 30-42] in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Among the 80 men enrolled (median age: 40 years), 55% were HIV-diagnosed before 2000, 56% had at least one sexually transmitted infection in the year before HCV diagnosis; 55% were HCV-infected with genotype 4 (15 men in one 4d-cluster), 32.5% with genotype 1 (three 1a-clusters); five men were HCV re-infected; in the six-month preceding HCV diagnosis, 92% reported having casual sexual partners sought online (75.5%) and at sex venues (79%), unprotected anal sex (90%) and fisting (65%); using recreational drugs (62%) and bleeding during sex (55%). CONCLUSIONS: This study emphasizes the role of multiple unprotected sexual practices and recreational drugs use during sex in the HCV emergence in HIV-infected MSM. It becomes essential to adapt prevention strategies and inform HIV-infected MSM with recent acute HCV infection on risk of re-infection and on risk-reduction strategies

Staphylococcus aureus infective endocarditis versus bacteremia strains: Subtle genetic differences at stake

AbstractInfective endocarditis (IE)(1) is a severe condition complicating 10–25% of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Although host-related IE risk factors have been identified, the involvement of bacterial features in IE complication is still unclear. We characterized strictly defined IE and bacteremia isolates and searched for discriminant features. S. aureus isolates causing community-acquired, definite native-valve IE (n=72) and bacteremia (n=54) were collected prospectively as part of a French multicenter cohort. Phenotypic traits previously reported or hypothesized to be involved in staphylococcal IE pathogenesis were tested. In parallel, the genotypic profiles of all isolates, obtained by microarray, were analyzed by discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC)(2). No significant difference was observed between IE and bacteremia strains, regarding either phenotypic or genotypic univariate analyses. However, the multivariate statistical tool DAPC, applied on microarray data, segregated IE and bacteremia isolates: IE isolates were correctly reassigned as such in 80.6% of the cases (C-statistic 0.83, P<0.001). The performance of this model was confirmed with an independent French collection IE and bacteremia isolates (78.8% reassignment, C-statistic 0.65, P<0.01). Finally, a simple linear discriminant function based on a subset of 8 genetic markers retained valuable performance both in study collection (86.1%, P<0.001) and in the independent validation collection (81.8%, P<0.01). We here show that community-acquired IE and bacteremia S. aureus isolates are genetically distinct based on subtle combinations of genetic markers. This finding provides the proof of concept that bacterial characteristics may contribute to the occurrence of IE in patients with S. aureus bacteremia