On Effective Degrees of Freedom in the Early Universe

We explore the effective degrees of freedom in the early universe, from before the electroweak scale at a few femtoseconds after the Big Bang, until the last positrons disappeared a few minutes later. We first look at the established concepts of effective degrees of freedom for energy density, pressure and entropy density, and introduce effective degrees of freedom for number density as well. We discuss what happens with particle species as their temperature cools down from relativistic to semi- and non-relativistic temperatures, and then annihilates completely. This will affect the pressure as well as the entropy per particle. We also look at the transition from a quark-gluon plasma to a hadron gas. Using a list of known hadrons, we use a "cross-over" temperature of 214 MeV where the effective degrees of freedom for a quark-gluon plasma equals that of a hadron gas.Comment: 29 pages, 7 figure

State-of-the-art research : reflections on a concerted Nordic-Baltic nuclear energy effort

Quite a few hold the view that nuclear energy will have its renaissance in the not too distant future. Technology is, however, a necessary, but not sufficient condition. The needed prerequisites represent a complex issue. With increasing energy demand and depletion of non-renewable energy resources, nuclear will have to prove its role in an increasing energy mix, globally, regionally and often also nationally. Based on its history, experience with coordinated interplay in electricity production from a variety of energy sources, and science engagements, we argue for a future Nordic/Baltic SHOW CASE: A nuclear weapons free and proliferation safe nuclear energy supplier in the region, with a concerted role in competence building and in international ventures, and with focus on operation, safety economy and societal aspects

Utvikling, kvalitet og ledelse. Kvalitetsutviklingssystem og ledelse i utdanningssektoren i Nord- Trøndelag

I 2005 innførte Fylkestinget i Nord-Trøndelag et helhetlig kvalitetssystem for utdanningssektoren basert på en modell for planlegging, rapportering og vurdering. Vi har sett på hvilken betydning innføringen av systemet har hatt for ledelsesarbeidet i skolen. Problemstillingen i oppgaven er: Hvordan påvirker kvalitetsutviklingssystemet ledelsesarbeidet i skolen? For å få svar på problemstillingen har vi brukt følgende to forskningsspørsmål: 1. Hvordan er forholdet mellom kvalitetsbegrepet i kvalitetsutviklingssystemets og lederes forståelse av kvalitet. 2. Hvordan vurderer lederne kvalitetsutviklingssystemet som verktøy for kvalitetsutvikling i skolen

Stress tolerance in Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedlings during transport and after planting

I kommersielt skogbruk er det planting som setter grunnlaget for resten av omløpet. Dette er sannsynligvis den viktigste beslutningen relatert til etablering. I Norge ble det i 2018 solgt 39,2 millioner granplanter fra norske planteskoler. Planteetablering og vekst etter planting er avgjørende for om plantingen blir vellykket, og bestemmes av plantenes vekstpotensial og i hvilken grad miljøbetingelsene tillater denne veksten. Dermed er det viktig å bruke godt plantemateriale med riktig alder, proveniens, kortdagsbehandling og plantetidspunkt. Hovedmålet med denne oppgaven var å teste prestasjonen til ulike plantepartier for å si noe om plantekvaliteten og anbefalinger ved vår- og høstplanting. Denne oppgaven består av et herdighetsforsøk og et planteforsøk. I herdighetsforsøket ønsket jeg å teste hva som påvirker hvor robust et planteparti er ved høstplanting. Ved å teste i hvilken grad forskjellige planteparti ville bli skadet ved en tidlig frostnatt eller en varm og stressende utplanting. Det ble gjennomført en frysetest og fire varmebehandlinger ved to forskjellige tidspunkt for å undersøke forskjeller ved proveniens, kortdagsbehandling og plantetidspunkt. Jeg fant at varmetoleransen øker med en høyereliggende proveniens. Kortdagsbehandling ga signifikant mindre skade etter frysetesten og varmebehandlingene. Analyser av genaktiviteten viste at høyereliggende provenienser, kortdagsbehandling og et senere plantetidspunkt ga høyere frosttoleranse. I planteforsøket testet jeg forskjellen mellom ettårige og toårige granplanter fra to forskjellige planteskoler. Jeg fant at plantene fra en av planteskolene var større ved utplanting, og beholdt forspranget gjennom hele vekstsesongen. Det ble ikke funnet noe signifikant forskjell i avgang av planter i første vekstsesong mellom ettårige og toårige granplanter. De ettårige granplantene hadde større total høydetilvekst og relativ høydetilvekst enn de toårige plantene fra samme planteskole. Dette er gode nyheter for planteskoler som kan øke produksjonen og senke prisen per plante ved en økning av ettårige granplanter i forhold til toårige. Det var signifikant større avgang i markberedningsflekker enn i vanlig humus. Det skyldes nok den spesielt varme sommeren 2018, men kan være tegn på at man bør unngå markberedning i tørre områder om det er fare for ekstrem tørke i første vekstsesong.In commercial forestry, planting sets the foundation for the rest of the circulation. This is probably the most important decisions related to establishment. In 2018, 39,2 million Norway spruce seedlings were sold from Norwegian nurseries. Seedling establishment and growth after planting are crucial to determine if the planting is successful. This depends on the growth potential of the seedlings and to what extent environmental conditions permit this growth. Thus, it is important to use good seedling material with the right age, provenance, short-day treatment and planting time. The main objective of this thesis was to test the performance of various seedling batches to come to some conclusions about the seedling quality and recommendations for spring and autumn planting. This thesis consists of a hardiness experiment and a plant experiment. In the hardness experiment, I wanted to test what affects how robust a seedling batch is in autumn planting. By testing to what extent different seedling batches would be damaged by an early frost night or a warm and stressful planting. A freezing test and four heat treatments were carried out at two different dates to investigate differences in provenance, short-day treatment and planting date. I found that a higher-lying provenance increases the heat tolerance of the seedling batch. Short-day treatment gave significantly less damage after the freeze test and heat treatments. Analyzes of gene activity also showed that higher provenances, short-day treatment and a later planting time gave higher frost tolerance. In the plant experiment, I tested the difference between one-year-old and two-year-old Norway spruce seedlings from two different nurseries. I found that the seedlings from one of the nurseries were larger at planting and kept the lead throughout the growing season. No significant difference was found in the mortality of seedlings in the first growing season between the one-year-old and two-year-old seedlings. The one-year-old seedlings had greater overall height growth and relative height growth than the two-year-old seedlings from the same nursery. This is good news for nurseries that can increase production and lower the price per seedling by an increase of one-year-old compared to two-year-old seedlings. There was a significantly greater mortality in scarification planting spots than in regular planting spots. This is probably due to the particularly hot summer in 2018 but may indicate that soil scarification should be avoided in dry areas if there is a risk of extreme drought in the first growing season.submittedVersionM-S

Key Features for Successful Swedish Primary Diabetes Care – Reality or Fiction? : Nationwide studies of longitudinal follow-up, HbA1c levels and all-cause mortality in an organizational context

Aims To extend knowledge about the changes in Swedish primary diabetes care from 2006 to 2013 and investigate associations of personnel resources, organizational features and quality-of-work conditions of primary health-care centres (PHCCs) with individual HbA1c levels and all-cause mortality in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods Information about organizational features, personnel resources and quality-of-work conditions were collected from responses of PHCC managers to the Swedish National Survey of the Quality and Organisation of Diabetes Care in Primary HealthCare (Swed-QOP) questionnaire. The longitudinal cross-sectional study included 74.3% and 76.4% of PHCCs in 2006 and 2013, respectively. Individual clinical data for 230,958 people with T2DM obtained from the Swedish National Diabetes Register were linked to the data from the Swed-QOP questionnaire. Individual data were linked to socio-economic and comorbidity data. All-cause mortality was followed up for a median of 4.2 years for 187,570 people with T2DM. Results The longitudinal follow-up study showed a decreased median PHCC list size but an increased median number of people with T2DM. The mean European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits in diabetes-specific education for registered nurses (RNs) increased. The number of PHCCs providing group education programs and involving the patient in goal setting remained low (I). PHCCs having diabetes teams and group education programs were associated with decreased HbA1c levels. Using call-recall system to general practitioners (GPs) was associated with increased HbA1c levels (II). Seven quality-of-work features were identified, of which Individualized treatment was associated with decreased HbA1c levels in people with controlled (≤ 52 mmol/mol), intermediate (53–69 mmol/mol) and uncontrolled (≥ 70 mmol/mol) HbA1c (III). GP staffing was associated with a decreased risk of early death and the mean ECTS credits in diabetes-specific and pedagogical education of RNs was associated with a decreased risk of early death in people aged ≥ 55 years and in men, respectively (IV). Conclusion This thesis adds to previous work on significant but less pronounced key features for successful organization of primary diabetes care, and indicates that the complexity of diabetes disease makes it difficult to identify success factors applicable to all people living with T2DM

The organisation of diabetes care for persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus : A nationwide cross-sectional study in Swedish primary health care

Aim To extend the current knowledge about changes in Swedish diabetes care from 2006 to 2013 (Paper I), and to investigate the association between personnel resources and organisational features of primary health care centres (PHCCs) and the individual level of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) among persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) (Paper II). Methods The longitudinal cross-sectional study described in Paper I included a total of 684 (74.3%) of eligible 921 PHCCs in 2006 and 880 (76.4%) of eligible 1152 PHCCs in 2013. The Swedish National Survey of the Quality and Organisation of Diabetes Care in Primary Healthcare (Swed-QOP) questionnaire was sent to PHCC managers in 2007 and 2014. In Paper II, persons with T2DM (n = 230 958) attending 846 PHCCs were included. The PHCC-level data for 2013 were obtained from the Swed-QOP questionnaire and the individual-level data for 2013 were obtained from the National Diabetes Register. These data were linked to national registers containing individual-level data on socio-economic status and comorbidities. Results From 2006 to 2013, the median list size of PHCCs decreased while the median number of persons with T2DM at the PHCC increased (all P < 0.001). The median number of whole time equivalent registered nurses (RNs) per 500 persons with T2DM increased from 0.64 in 2006 to 0.79 in 2013 (P < 0.001). Compared with 2006, 30% percentage points more PHCCs (17.0% in 2006 and 47.5% in 2013) had an RN with at least 16 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits in diabetes-specific education in 2013 (P < 0.001). Access to an in-house psychologist increased from 25.9% in 2006 to 47.1% in 2013 (P < 0.001). No change was found regarding in-house access to dietitians, chiropodists, social workers or physiotherapists. Observed changes in the organisational features of PHCCs from 2006 to 2013 included increased frequency of medical check-ups, use of call–recall systems and use of systems for checking that persons with T2DM participated in annual visits to general practitioners (GPs) and RNs (all P < 0.05). Providing group education remained scarce in both years (Paper I). After adjusting for several important confounders, personnel resources associated with decreasing individual HbA1c levels were the number of ECTS credits in diabetes-specific education among RNs (P < 0.001) and the duration of regular visits to RNs (P < 0.001). However, the opposite effect (i.e., increased HbA1c levels) was found for the duration of visits to GPs (P < 0.001). Organisational features associated with decreased individual HbA1c levels were PHCCs having a diabetes team (P < 0.01) and providing group education (P < 0.01) (Paper II). Conclusions The findings presented in this thesis add important knowledge on evaluating changes in diabetes care in Sweden. Some findings can be interpreted as initiatives to focus on increasing the time RNs devote to caring for persons with T2DM, and in ensuring RNs undergo diabetes-specific education. Furthermore, factors such as diabetes-specific education, diabetes teams and group education were associated with lower individual HbA1c levels. These findings could stimulate decision-makers to prioritise these factors for offering high-quality, equitable care to persons with diabetes

Stresstoleranse hos granplanter (Picea abies) ved transport og etter utplanting

I kommersielt skogbruk er det planting som setter grunnlaget for resten av omløpet. Dette er sannsynligvis den viktigste beslutningen relatert til etablering. I Norge ble det i 2018 solgt 39,2 millioner granplanter fra norske planteskoler. Planteetablering og vekst etter planting er avgjørende for om plantingen blir vellykket, og bestemmes av plantenes vekstpotensial og i hvilken grad miljøbetingelsene tillater denne veksten. Dermed er det viktig å bruke godt plantemateriale med riktig alder, proveniens, kortdagsbehandling og plantetidspunkt. Hovedmålet med denne oppgaven var å teste prestasjonen til ulike plantepartier for å si noe om plantekvaliteten og anbefalinger ved vår- og høstplanting. Denne oppgaven består av et herdighetsforsøk og et planteforsøk. I herdighetsforsøket ønsket jeg å teste hva som påvirker hvor robust et planteparti er ved høstplanting. Ved å teste i hvilken grad forskjellige planteparti ville bli skadet ved en tidlig frostnatt eller en varm og stressende utplanting. Det ble gjennomført en frysetest og fire varmebehandlinger ved to forskjellige tidspunkt for å undersøke forskjeller ved proveniens, kortdagsbehandling og plantetidspunkt. Jeg fant at varmetoleransen øker med en høyereliggende proveniens. Kortdagsbehandling ga signifikant mindre skade etter frysetesten og varmebehandlingene. Analyser av genaktiviteten viste at høyereliggende provenienser, kortdagsbehandling og et senere plantetidspunkt ga høyere frosttoleranse. I planteforsøket testet jeg forskjellen mellom ettårige og toårige granplanter fra to forskjellige planteskoler. Jeg fant at plantene fra en av planteskolene var større ved utplanting, og beholdt forspranget gjennom hele vekstsesongen. Det ble ikke funnet noe signifikant forskjell i avgang av planter i første vekstsesong mellom ettårige og toårige granplanter. De ettårige granplantene hadde større total høydetilvekst og relativ høydetilvekst enn de toårige plantene fra samme planteskole. Dette er gode nyheter for planteskoler som kan øke produksjonen og senke prisen per plante ved en økning av ettårige granplanter i forhold til toårige. Det var signifikant større avgang i markberedningsflekker enn i vanlig humus. Det skyldes nok den spesielt varme sommeren 2018, men kan være tegn på at man bør unngå markberedning i tørre områder om det er fare for ekstrem tørke i første vekstsesong

Key Features for Successful Swedish Primary Diabetes Care – Reality or Fiction? : Nationwide studies of longitudinal follow-up, HbA1c levels and all-cause mortality in an organizational context

Aims To extend knowledge about the changes in Swedish primary diabetes care from 2006 to 2013 and investigate associations of personnel resources, organizational features and quality-of-work conditions of primary health-care centres (PHCCs) with individual HbA1c levels and all-cause mortality in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods Information about organizational features, personnel resources and quality-of-work conditions were collected from responses of PHCC managers to the Swedish National Survey of the Quality and Organisation of Diabetes Care in Primary HealthCare (Swed-QOP) questionnaire. The longitudinal cross-sectional study included 74.3% and 76.4% of PHCCs in 2006 and 2013, respectively. Individual clinical data for 230,958 people with T2DM obtained from the Swedish National Diabetes Register were linked to the data from the Swed-QOP questionnaire. Individual data were linked to socio-economic and comorbidity data. All-cause mortality was followed up for a median of 4.2 years for 187,570 people with T2DM. Results The longitudinal follow-up study showed a decreased median PHCC list size but an increased median number of people with T2DM. The mean European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits in diabetes-specific education for registered nurses (RNs) increased. The number of PHCCs providing group education programs and involving the patient in goal setting remained low (I). PHCCs having diabetes teams and group education programs were associated with decreased HbA1c levels. Using call-recall system to general practitioners (GPs) was associated with increased HbA1c levels (II). Seven quality-of-work features were identified, of which Individualized treatment was associated with decreased HbA1c levels in people with controlled (≤ 52 mmol/mol), intermediate (53–69 mmol/mol) and uncontrolled (≥ 70 mmol/mol) HbA1c (III). GP staffing was associated with a decreased risk of early death and the mean ECTS credits in diabetes-specific and pedagogical education of RNs was associated with a decreased risk of early death in people aged ≥ 55 years and in men, respectively (IV). Conclusion This thesis adds to previous work on significant but less pronounced key features for successful organization of primary diabetes care, and indicates that the complexity of diabetes disease makes it difficult to identify success factors applicable to all people living with T2DM