Revisiting Friedman’s 'On the methodology of positive economics' ('F53')

In this paper, I shall defend two main claims. First, Friedman’s famous paper “On the methodology of positive economics” (“F53”) cannot be properly understood without taking into account the influence of three authors who are neither cited nor mentioned in the paper: Max Weber, Frank Knight, and Karl Popper. I shall trace both their substantive influence on F53 and the historical route by which this influence took place. Once one has understood these ingredients, especially Weber’s ideal types, many of F53’s astonishing sentences like “the more significant the theory, the more unrealistic the assumptions”, make good sense. Second, I shall claim that the much-discussed question whether Friedman’s essay espouses an instrumentalist or a realist position, is the wrong question to be asked. I shall illustrate that by a comparison with examples from physics in which also unrealistic assumptions are made. Also there, the question whether these assumptions are indicators of instrumentalism or realism is not appropriate. Cleared from these misunderstandings, F53 presents itself as an interesting and reasonable but much less controversial contribution to the methodology of economics

Philosophical Elements in Thomas Kuhn’s Historiography of Science

To begin, the so-called ‘selectivity of historical judgment’ is discussed. According to it, writing history requires a comparative criterion of historical relevance. This criterion contains philosophical elements. In Kuhn’s case, the criterion directs historical research and presentation away from Whiggish historiography by postulating a hermeneutic reading of historical sources. This postulate implies some sort of internalism, some sort of rationality of scientific development, and historical realism. To conclude, some consequences of Kuhn’s anti-Whiggism are discussed. Para empezar, se discute la llamada “selectividad del juicio histórico”. De acuerdo con ello, escribir historia requiere un criterio comparativo de relevancia histórica. Este criterio contiene elementos filosóficos. En el caso de Kuhn, el criterio aleja la investigación y la presentación histórica de la historiografía Whig al postular una lectura hermenéutica de las fuentes históricas. Este postulado implica alguna clase de internismo, de racionalidad del desarrollo científico y realismo histórico. Para concluir, se discuten algunas consecuencias de la postura anti-Whig de Kuhn

Replies

In this article, I reply to the preceding articles by Naomi Oreskes, Chrysostomos Mantzavinos, Brad Wray, Sarah Green, Alexander Bird, and Timothy Lyons. These articles contain a number of objections and suggestions concerning systematicity theory, as developed in my book ystematicity: The Nature of Science (Oxford UP, 2013)

Revisiting Friedman’s F53: Popper, Knight, and Weber

Neither Karl Popper, nor Frank Knight, nor Max Weber are cited or mentioned in Friedman’s famous 1953 essay “On the methodology of positive economics” (F53). However, they play a crucial role in F53. Making their con-tribution explicit suggests that F53 has been seriously misread in the past. I will first show that there are several irritating statements in F53 that are, taken together, not compatible with any of the usual readings of F53. Sec-ond, I show that an alternative reading of F53 can be achieved if one takes seriously Friedman’s reference to ideal types; “ideal type” is a technical term introduced by Max Weber. Friedman was familiar with Max Weber’s work through Frank Knight, who was his teacher in Chicago. Given that in F53’s view ideal types are fundamen-tal building blocks of economic theory, it becomes clear why both instrumentalist and realist readings of F53 are inadequate. Third, the reading of F53 in terms of ideal types gives the role of elements from Popper’s falsifica-tionist methodology in F53 a somewhat different twist. Finally, I show that the irritating passages of F53 make good sense under the new reading, including the infamous “the more significant the theory, the more unrealistic the assumptions”

Replies

In this article, I reply to the preceding articles by Naomi Oreskes, Chrysostomos Mantzavinos, Brad Wray, Sarah Green, Alexander Bird, and Timothy Lyons. These articles contain a number of objections and suggestions concerning systematicity theory, as developed in my book ystematicity: The Nature of Science (Oxford UP, 2013)

Revisiting Friedman’s F53: Popper, Knight, and Weber

Neither Karl Popper, nor Frank Knight, nor Max Weber are cited or mentioned in Friedman’s famous 1953 essay “On the methodology of positive economics” (F53). However, they play a crucial role in F53. Making their con-tribution explicit suggests that F53 has been seriously misread in the past. I will first show that there are several irritating statements in F53 that are, taken together, not compatible with any of the usual readings of F53. Sec-ond, I show that an alternative reading of F53 can be achieved if one takes seriously Friedman’s reference to ideal types; “ideal type” is a technical term introduced by Max Weber. Friedman was familiar with Max Weber’s work through Frank Knight, who was his teacher in Chicago. Given that in F53’s view ideal types are fundamen-tal building blocks of economic theory, it becomes clear why both instrumentalist and realist readings of F53 are inadequate. Third, the reading of F53 in terms of ideal types gives the role of elements from Popper’s falsifica-tionist methodology in F53 a somewhat different twist. Finally, I show that the irritating passages of F53 make good sense under the new reading, including the infamous “the more significant the theory, the more unrealistic the assumptions”

Characterization of microbial communities in carbonate sediments

Microbial communities in carbonate sediments from the alkaline Lake Neusiedl and the Aldabra Atoll were characterized. The aim was to determine the microbial community composition and function in the context of their contribution to biogeochemical cycles and carbonate precipitation. Total DNA and RNA were extracted from sediment and water samples. 16S ribosomal RNA genes and transcripts were amplified and sequenced to determine the bacterial community composition. Metagenomes were assembled from selected sampling sites to determine the functional potential encoded within the microbial community. Detailed insights into bacterial genomes and metabolism were gained through isolation and characterisation of two novel bacterial species derived from Aldabra. The first sampling campaign represents the proof-of-concept study at Lake Neusiedl (Chapter C.1 & C.2). In this study the sampling procedure for the push-cores and water column was established. Bacterial 16S rRNA genes were amplified from the total DNA, sequenced, and analysed. The results showed that freshwater picoplanktonic Alphaproteobacteria and Actinobacteriota were abundant in the water column (Chapter C.1). Together with Synechococcales sheaths they may provide nucleation sites for carbonate precipitation in the water column. The sediment followed the standard biogeochemical succession and showed signs of diatom dissolution (Chapter C.2). This was linked to high abundance of heterotrophic Gammaproteobacteria and fermenting Chloroflexota, which likely contributed to maintaining the neutral pH and supported the dissolution process. The main sampling campaign to the Aldabra Atoll took place at the end of the dry season in November 2017. Sediment cores and water samples were taken at three sampling sites in the lagoon and one pool at the island rim (Chapter C.3). The bacterial community composition was identified using both 16S rRNA genes and transcripts, covering both present and past members of the community. The sampling sites Cinq Cases and Westpool D were selected for direct metagenome sequencing and analysis, as these were landlocked pools with a history of stromatolites (Chapter C.5). The sand sediment was oxic with low bacterial diversities and dominant Pseudomonas. The surface was covered by a slightly lithified crust, potentially linked to tidally induced carbonate oversaturation and precipitation driven by the activity of Gloeocapsopsis (Chapter C.3). In the mud and silt sediments bioturbation and tidal mixing led to a mixed surface and sulphate reduction zone. These were followed by atypical low bacterial phylogenetic diversity zones with high proportions of Gammaproteobacteria. Their onset was linked to changes in redox conditions, sediment age and available organic material (Chapter C.3). This was supported by results from the analysis of abundant metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of the low-diversity zones at Cinq Cases. The MAGs harboured key genes for aerobic metabolism and denitrification (Chapter C.5). MAGs and 16S rRNA genes from Westpool D suggested that a biofilm comprising Gloeocapsa, Salinivibrio and Francisella is responsible for biologically induced carbonate precipitation of the local stromatolites. The unlithified microbial mat at the bottom of the pond harboured Cyanobium and Arthrospira, indicating that only specific Cyanobacteria support carbonate precipitation (Chapter C.5). To identify novel bacteria and provide information on the vast majority of uncultured taxa, we enriched halophilic members of the bacterial community. Two isolates were selected and characterized both physiologically and genomically (Chapter C.4). Pontibacillus sp. ALD_SL1 was isolated form the mudflat of the South Lagoon and exhibited a high relative abundance (30%) in the active bacterial community of the water column at Cinq Cases. Psychroflexus sp. ALD_RP9 was isolated from the bacterial bloom at Westpool D. Its ability to form extensive EPS to protect itself from salt and solar radiation may result in binding Ca2+-ions. Upon EPS degradation, local increase of Ca2+ and rearrangement of the EPS residues support the nucleation of carbonates. This study encompasses the first characterization of microbial communities from the Aldabra Atoll using amplicon, metagenome, and genome analyses. The study highlights the different modes of carbonate precipitation, which can occur in the lacustrine and lagoonal environments. It also provides a basis for in-depth analysis of individual members of the community and their involvement in sediment biogeochemical cycling.2021-12-0