Pathogens of Humans Transmitted by Arthropods in Central Europe – an Update

Mitteleuropa beherbergt eine nicht geringe Zahl von Krankheitserregern (mindestens 14 Viren, ca. 10 bakterielle Erreger und mindestens 4 Protozoen), die durch Stechmücken, Zecken oder Sandmücken übertragen werden. In allen Fällen handelt es sich um Erreger von Zoonosen, also Mikroorganismen, deren natürliches Reservoir Wildtiere (allenfalls, sekundär, auch Haustiere) darstellen. Eine Ausrottung dieser Erreger ist daher ausgeschlossen. (Die Ausrottung der Malaria in Mitteleuropa und darüber hinaus in Europa war vor allem deshalb möglich, weil die involvierten Plasmodien-Spezies außer dem Menschen keine anderen Vertebraten infizieren können.)Die Erfassung der durch Arthropoden übertragenen Erreger und deren Verbreitungsareale schreitet – vor allem durch den Einsatz molekularbiologischer Methoden – zügig voran. Einige neue oder zumindest für Mitteleuropa neue, humanmedizinisch relevante Mikroorganismen sind in letzten Jahren nachgewiesen worden, mit weiteren Entdeckungen ist durchaus zu rechnen. Möglicherweise wird auch der Klimawandel, insbesondere bei einem Fortschreiten einer globalen Erwärmung, zur Etablierung von neuen Erregern ebenso wie zur Ausweitung der Verbreitungsareale von Vektoren führen. Vor allem wird aber der Faktor der Globalisierung durch mögliche Einschleppungen zunehmend an Bedeutung gewinnen. Es gibt bisher nur gegen einen einzigen Erreger – gegen das Virus der Frühsommer-Meningoenzephalitis – einen Impfstoff, der sich überdies durch hervorragende Wirksamkeit und außerordentlich gute Verträglichkeit auszeichnet. Mit neuen Impfstoffen gegen andere Erreger ist allerdings in der nahen Zukunft nicht zu rechnen. Immerhin sind aber die durch Bakterien ebenso wie die durch Protozoen hervorgerufenen Erkrankungen einer antibiotischen Therapie zugänglich, wenn sie rechtzeitig diagnostiziert werden. Hingegen stehen uns keine Medikamente gegen die durch Arthropoden übertragenen Viren zur Verfügung. Prophylaktische Maßnahmen werden daher weiterhin bedeutsam sein; das gilt vor allem für Kleinkinder, für alte Menschen und Immunsupprimierte.The development of extraordinarily efficient molecular biological methods has led to an enormous progress in the field of vector-borne diseases in Central Europe. In particular, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), various techniques of genomic sequencing, and the fast progress in uncovering and storing of gene sequences in generally accessible data bases offer the possibility of testing large numbers of vectors for certain sequences indicative for certain pathogenic microorganisms. There is a continuous increase of records of viruses, bacteria and protozoa of medical importance in ticks or bloodsucking insects in geographic regions in Central Europe where these microorganisms were previously not known. In addition, a few (proven or possibly) pathogenic microorganisms have been detected in Central Europe for the first time, and there is no doubt that several are still to be discovered. At present, Central Europe harbours (permanently or for varying periods in restricted areas) 8 tick-borne viruses (Flaviviridae: TBE/CEE; Bunyaviridae: Uukuniemi, Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever/CCHF, Erve, Bhanja; Reoviridae: Eyach, Tribec, Lipovnik), about 10 species of bacteria transmitted by ticks (Spirochaetales: Borrelia burgdorferi s. str., B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. valaisiana; Thiotricales: Francisella tularensis; Rickettsiales: Rickettsia slovaca, R. helvetica, R. monacensis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum; Coxiella burnetii), moreover (at least) 3 species of Babesia (B. divergens, B. microti, B. “EU 1”) (Protozoa: Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida), 6 viruses transmitted by mosquitoes (Togaviridae: Sindbis; Flaviviridae: West Nile, Usutu; Bunyaviridae: Batai = Calovo, Tahyna, Lednice), and Leishmania infantum (Protozoa: Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) transmitted by sandflies. The paper gives an overview on the present knowledge of these microorganisms and the diseases caused by them with respect to arthropod hosts, vertebrate hosts, geographic distribution, clinical pictures, diagnostic procedures, therapies, and prophylactic measures. The current discussion on climate change and emergence of vector-borne diseases is critically analysed. It is pointed out that effects of globalisation (e.g. the emergence of the tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, of Blue-tongue virus in Central Europe) and the discovery of pre-existing conditions (e.g. detection of Phlebotominae in Germany) may be of much higher significance. Nevertheless, global warming will certainly lead to altered situations in the field of vector-borne infections in Central Europe. An example is probably the extension of distribution areas of sandflies and the increasing autochthonous occurrence of leishmaniosis

Pseudodidymium cryptomastigophorum gen. n., sp. n., a Hyperamoeba or a Slime Mould? A Combined Study on Morphology and 18S rDNA Sequence Data

Summary. The Hyperamoeba-like amoeboflagellate (Wi7/2-PE) has been isolated from a hydrotherapy pool inside a hospital at Wildbach/ Germany. Based on combined morphological and molecularbiological data we conclude that this isolate can neither be assigned to the genus Hyperamoeba nor to any of the myxogastrean slime moulds, which are the closest relatives of Hyperamoeba. We thus considered describing this isolate within a new genus, Pseudodidymium, as a new species, Pseudodidymium cryptomastigophorum. As observed by phase contrast microscopy the gross morphology and size of the three stages -trophozoite, cyst, and flagellate stage -is comparable to respective characters of Hyperamoeba as described b

The identification of free-living environmental isolates of amoebae from Bulgaria

A survey was carried out in Bulgaria to determine the presence of free-living amoebae (FLA) from environmental sources. In 171 (61.1%) of 280 samples, isolates of Acanthamoeba with group II or III morphology, as well as Hartmannella spp. were recovered. Five isolates named "6” (artificial lake), Ep (lake), G2 (soil), R4* (river) and PK (spring water)—all exhibiting a highly efficient proliferation in axenic cultures—were subsequently cloned and subjected to molecular analyses for identification and genotyping In accordance with morphological findings, PCR-based analyses identified four isolates (6, Ep, G2, R4*) belonging to the genus Acanthamoeba. Confirmation of these findings was obtained by phylogenetic analysis using partial sequencing of the 18S rDNA (ASA.S1) Acanthamoeba-gene. Comparison of these sequences with corresponding regions from other Acanthamoeba strains available from GenBank sorted all four isolates into the sequence type group T4 that contains most of the pathogenic Acanthamoeba strains already identified. The fifth isolate (PK) exhibited morphological characteristics matching those of Hartmannella, and scored negative in the Naegleria fowleri and Acanthamoeba PCR

Onchocerca jakutensis Filariasis in Humans

We identified Onchocerca jakutensis as the causative agent of an unusual human filariasis in a patient with lupus erythematosus. To our knowledge, this is the first case of human infection with O. jakutensis and the first human case of zoonotic onchocercosis involving >1 worm

The Economy of Dürrnberg-Bei-Hallein: An Iron Age Salt-mining Centre in the Austrian Alps

For the first time in English, we present a summary of the international programme of excavation work carried out between 1990 and 2001 in and around the Iron Age salt-mining complex of the Diirrnberg region, south of Salzburg. First we describe the results of excavation in the prehistoric adits, and of work to locate and survey associated settlements. This is followed by a series of specialist reports embracing floral and faunal remains, palaeodiet and parasitology, leather and woodworking and other crafts. The evidence suggests that a complex inter-relationship existed between the Diirrnberg and other communities in the Alpine foreland. It is assumed that the Diirrnberg was under the control of an elite - perhaps a local dynasty whose wealth is reflected in the grave

Successful Treatment of Disseminated Acanthamoeba sp. Infection with Miltefosine

We report on an HIV-negative but immunocompromised patient with disseminated acanthamoebiasis, granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, and underlying miliary tuberculosis and tuberculous meningitis. The patient responded favorably to treatment with miltefosine, an alkylphosphocholine. The patient remained well with no signs of infection 2 years after treatment cessation

New Species in the Old World: Europe as a Frontier in Biodiversity Exploration, a Test Bed for 21st Century Taxonomy

The number of described species on the planet is about 1.9 million, with ca. 17,000 new species described annually, mostly from the tropics. However, taxonomy is usually described as a science in crisis, lacking manpower and funding, a politically acknowledged problem known as the Taxonomic Impediment. Using data from the Fauna Europaea database and the Zoological Record, we show that contrary to general belief, developed and heavily-studied parts of the world are important reservoirs of unknown species. In Europe, new species of multicellular terrestrial and freshwater animals are being discovered and named at an unprecedented rate: since the 1950s, more than 770 new species are on average described each year from Europe, which add to the 125,000 terrestrial and freshwater multicellular species already known in this region. There is no sign of having reached a plateau that would allow for the assessment of the magnitude of European biodiversity. More remarkably, over 60% of these new species are described by non-professional taxonomists. Amateurs are recognized as an essential part of the workforce in ecology and astronomy, but the magnitude of non-professional taxonomist contributions to alpha-taxonomy has not been fully realized until now. Our results stress the importance of developing a system that better supports and guides this formidable workforce, as we seek to overcome the Taxonomic Impediment and speed up the process of describing the planetary biodiversity before it is too late

Zur Frage des Vorkommens der Ordnung Raphidiodea auf der südlichen Hemisphäre.

Die Untersuchung des Typus der aus Chile beschriebenen Raphidia herbsti Esben-Petersen, 1912, ergab die völlige Identität mit der aus Nordamerika beschriebenen Agulla occidentis Carpenter, 1936, die somit ein Synonym zu Raphidia herbsti darstellt. Die Art kommt in Chile sicherlich nicht vor (Fundortzettelverwechslung, verschlepptes Individuum?). Die Ordnung Raphidiodea ist demnach von der Südhemisphäre nicht bekannt.The type of Raphidia herbsti Esben-Petersen, 1912, described from Chile is identical with Agulla occidentis Carpenter, 1936, which is known from several parts of California and Oregon. Agulla occidentis thus becomes a synonym of Raphidia herbsti. The species certainly does not occur in Chile (Mislabelled or imported individual?). The order Raphidiodea is, therefore, not known from the Southern hemisphere

The snakeflies of the Mediterranean islands: review and biogeographical analysis (Neuropterida, Raphidioptera)

The Mediterranean region representsone of the hotspots of biodiversity of many organisms and among these also of Raphidioptera. With about 250 known species world-wide Raphidioptera is the smallest order of extant holometabolous insects. The Mediterranean region harbors 113 species (= >45% of the world fauna), and of these 33 (= >13% of the world fauna) have been found on islands of the Mediterranean Sea. In the course of the past 50 years most of the larger islands have been intensively explored for Raphidioptera, particularly all islands (except the Baleares) which had no connection to the mainland throughout the whole Pleistocene. Altogether, 11 species of Raphidioptera (9 Raphidiidae, 2 Inocelliidae) are endemic to (usually)one, rarely to a few Mediterranean islands: Phaeostigma (Ph.) euboica (Euboea), Ph. (Aegeoraphidia) prophetica (Rhodes), Ph. (Ae.) karpathana (Karpathos), Ph. (Ae.) biroi (Crete), Ph. (Superboraphidia) minois (Crete), Subilla principiae (Sardinia), S. colossea (Rhodes), Raphidia (R.) peterressli (Chios), R. (R.) ariadne (Crete), Fibla (F.) maclachlani (Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily), F. (Reisserella) pasiphae (Crete). In the Aegean Sea there is a remarkable difference between the eastern and the western islands marked by the so-called Rechinger line based on results of the analysis of the flora. The Raphidioptera confirm this line impressively. It is rather unlikely that further Raphidioptera species endemic to Mediterranean islands are still to be detected – with one exception: the Baleares. A few additional species known from various parts of the continents surrounding the Mediterranean Sea will probably be found on islands so that a total number may be around 40, possibly around 45 species. The possible ways and times of colonization of the islands by Raphidioptera are discussed. The present paper may serve as a basis for studies on natural and particularly on anthropogenic dispersals of snakeflies from island to island, from mainland to islands, and from islands to the mainland in connection with phylogeographic investigations