Human helminth therapy to treat inflammatory disorders - where do we stand?

Parasitic helminths have evolved together with the mammalian immune system over many millennia and as such they have become remarkably efficient modulators in order to promote their own survival. Their ability to alter and/or suppress immune responses could be beneficial to the host by helping control excessive inflammatory responses and animal models and pre-clinical trials have all suggested a beneficial effect of helminth infections on inflammatory bowel conditions, MS, asthma and atopy. Thus, helminth therapy has been suggested as a possible treatment method for autoimmune and other inflammatory disorders in humans

IL-22 mediates goblet cell hyperplasia and worm expulsion in intestinal helminth infection.

Type 2 immune responses are essential in protection against intestinal helminth infections. In this study we show that IL-22, a cytokine important in defence against bacterial infections in the intestinal tract, is also a critical mediator of anti-helminth immunity. After infection with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, a rodent hookworm, IL-22-deficient mice showed impaired worm expulsion despite normal levels of type 2 cytokine production. The impaired worm expulsion correlated with reduced goblet cell hyperplasia and reduced expression of goblet cell markers. We further confirmed our findings in a second nematode model, the murine whipworm Trichuris muris. T.muris infected IL-22-deficient mice had a similar phenotype to that seen in N.brasiliensis infection, with impaired worm expulsion and reduced goblet cell hyperplasia. Ex vivo and in vitro analysis demonstrated that IL-22 is able to directly induce the expression of several goblet cell markers, including mucins. Taken together, our findings reveal that IL-22 plays an important role in goblet cell activation, and thus, a key role in anti-helminth immunity

T-Bet controls cellularity of intestinal group 3 innate lymphoid cells

Innate lymphoid cells (ILC) play a significant immunological role at mucosal surfaces such as the intestine. T-bet-expressing group 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) are believed to play a substantial role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, a role of T-bet-negative ILC3 in driving colitis has also been suggested in mouse models questioning T-bet as a critical factor for IBD. We report here that T-bet deficient mice had a greater cellularity of NKp46-negative ILC3 correlating with enhanced expression of RORγt and IL-7R, but independent of signaling through STAT1 or STAT4. We observed enhanced neutrophilia in the colonic lamina propria (cLP) of these animals, however, we did not detect a greater risk of T-bet-deficient mice to develop spontaneous colitis. Furthermore, by utilizing an in vivo fate-mapping approach, we identified a population of T-bet-positive precursors in NKp46-negative ILC3s. These data suggest that T-bet controls ILC3 cellularity, but does do not drive a pathogenic role of ILC3 in mice with a conventional specific pathogen-free microbiota

Macrophage-derived human resistin is induced in multiple helminth infections and promotes inflammatory monocytes and increased parasite burden.

Parasitic helminth infections can be associated with lifelong morbidity such as immune-mediated organ failure. A better understanding of the host immune response to helminths could provide new avenues to promote parasite clearance and/or alleviate infection-associated morbidity. Murine resistin-like molecules (RELM) exhibit pleiotropic functions following helminth infection including modulating the host immune response; however, the relevance of human RELM proteins in helminth infection is unknown. To examine the function of human resistin (hResistin), we utilized transgenic mice expressing the human resistin gene (hRetnTg+). Following infection with the helminth Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (Nb), hResistin expression was significantly upregulated in infected tissue. Compared to control hRetnTg- mice, hRetnTg+ mice suffered from exacerbated Nb-induced inflammation characterized by weight loss and increased infiltration of inflammatory monocytes in the lung, along with elevated Nb egg burdens and delayed parasite expulsion. Genome-wide transcriptional profiling of the infected tissue revealed that hResistin promoted expression of proinflammatory cytokines and genes downstream of toll-like receptor signaling. Moreover, hResistin preferentially bound lung monocytes, and exogenous treatment of mice with recombinant hResistin promoted monocyte recruitment and proinflammatory cytokine expression. In human studies, increased serum resistin was associated with higher parasite load in individuals infected with soil-transmitted helminths or filarial nematode Wuchereria bancrofti, and was positively correlated with proinflammatory cytokines. Together, these studies identify human resistin as a detrimental factor induced by multiple helminth infections, where it promotes proinflammatory cytokines and impedes parasite clearance. Targeting the resistin/proinflammatory cytokine immune axis may provide new diagnostic or treatment strategies for helminth infection and associated immune-mediated pathology

Trichinella inflammatory myopathy: host or parasite strategy?

The parasitic nematode Trichinella has a special relation with muscle, because of its unique intracellular localization in the skeletal muscle cell, completely devoted in morphology and biochemistry to become the parasite protective niche, otherwise called the nurse cell. The long-lasting muscle infection of Trichinella exhibits a strong interplay with the host immune response, mainly characterized by a Th2 phenotype

Understanding Human-Plasmodium falciparum Immune Interactions Uncovers the Immunological Role of Worms

BACKGROUND: Former studies have pointed to a monocyte-dependent effect of antibodies in protection against malaria and thereby to cytophilic antibodies IgG1 and IgG3, which trigger monocyte receptors. Field investigations have further documented that a switch from non-cytophilic to cytophilic classes of antimalarial antibodies was associated with protection. The hypothesis that the non-cytophilic isotype imbalance could be related to concomittant helminthic infections was supported by several interventions and case-control studies. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We investigated here the hypothesis that the delayed acquisition of immunity to malaria could be related to a worm-induced Th2 drive on antimalarial immune responses. IgG1 to IgG4 responses against 6 different parasite-derived antigens were analyzed in sera from 203 Senegalese children, half carrying intestinal worms, presenting 421 clinical malaria attacks over 51 months. Results show a significant correlation between the occurrence of malaria attacks, worm carriage (particularly that of hookworms) and a decrease in cytophilic IgG1 and IgG3 responses and an increase in non-cytophilic IgG4 response to the merozoite stage protein 3 (MSP3) vaccine candidate. CONCLUSION: The results confirm the association with protection of anti-MSP3 cytophilic responses, confirm in one additional setting that worms increase malaria morbidity and show a Th2 worm-driven pattern of anti-malarial immune responses. They document why large anthelminthic mass treatments may be worth being assessed as malaria control policies

Cervicovaginal immune activation in Zambian women with female genital schistosomiasis

HIV-1 infection disproportionately affects women in sub-Saharan Africa, where areas of high HIV-1 prevalence and Schistosoma haematobium endemicity largely overlap. Female genital schistosomiasis (FGS), an inflammatory disease caused by S. haematobium egg deposition in the genital tract, has been associated with prevalent HIV-1 infection. Elevated levels of the chemokines MIP-1 alpha (CCL-3), MIP-1 beta (CCL-4), IP-10 (CXCL-10), and IL-8 (CXCL-8) in cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) have been associated with HIV-1 acquisition. We hypothesize that levels of cervicovaginal cytokines may be raised in FGS and could provide a causal mechanism for the association between FGS and HIV-1. In the cross-sectional BILHIV study, specimens were collected from 603 female participants who were aged 18-31 years, sexually active, not pregnant and participated in the HPTN 071 (PopART) HIV-1 prevention trial in Zambia. Participants self-collected urine, and vaginal and cervical swabs, while CVLs were clinically obtained. Microscopy and Schistosoma circulating anodic antigen (CAA) were performed on urine. Genital samples were examined for parasite-specific DNA by PCR. Women with FGS (n=28), defined as a positive Schistosoma PCR from any genital sample were frequency age-matched with 159 FGS negative (defined as negative Schistosoma PCR, urine CAA, urine microscopy, and colposcopy imaging) women. Participants with probable FGS (n=25) (defined as the presence of either urine CAA or microscopy in combination with one of four clinical findings suggestive of FGS on colposcope-obtained photographs) were also included, for a total sample size of 212. The concentrations of 17 soluble cytokines and chemokines were quantified by a multiplex bead-based immunoassay. There was no difference in the concentrations of cytokines or chemokines between participants with and without FGS. An exploratory analysis of those women with a higher FGS burden, defined by >= 2 genital specimens with detectable Schistosoma DNA (n=15) showed, after adjusting for potential confounders, a higher Th2 (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) and pro-inflammatory (IL-15) expression pattern in comparison to FGS negative women, with differences unlikely to be due to chance (p=0.037 for IL-4 and p<0.001 for IL-5 after adjusting for multiple testing). FGS may alter the female genital tract immune environment, but larger studies in areas of varying endemicity are needed to evaluate the association with HIV-1 vulnerability.Cancer Signaling networks and Molecular Therapeutic

RSpred, a set of Hidden Markov Models to detect and classify the RIFIN and STEVOR proteins of Plasmodium falciparum

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Many parasites use multicopy protein families to avoid their host's immune system through a strategy called antigenic variation. RIFIN and STEVOR proteins are variable surface antigens uniquely found in the malaria parasites <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>and <it>P. reichenowi</it>. Although these two protein families are different, they have more similarity to each other than to any other proteins described to date. As a result, they have been grouped together in one Pfam domain. However, a recent study has described the sub-division of the RIFIN protein family into several functionally distinct groups. These sub-groups require phylogenetic analysis to sort out, which is not practical for large-scale projects, such as the sequencing of patient isolates and meta-genomic analysis.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We have manually curated the <it>rif </it>and <it>stevor </it>gene repertoires of two <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>genomes, isolates DD2 and HB3. We have identified 25% of mis-annotated and ~30 missing <it>rif </it>and <it>stevor </it>genes. Using these data sets, as well as sequences from the well curated reference genome (isolate 3D7) and field isolate data from Uniprot, we have developed a tool named RSpred. The tool, based on a set of hidden Markov models and an evaluation program, automatically identifies STEVOR and RIFIN sequences as well as the sub-groups: A-RIFIN, B-RIFIN, B1-RIFIN and B2-RIFIN. In addition to these groups, we distinguish a small subset of STEVOR proteins that we named STEVOR-like, as they either differ remarkably from typical STEVOR proteins or are too fragmented to reach a high enough score. When compared to Pfam and TIGRFAMs, RSpred proves to be a more robust and more sensitive method. We have applied RSpred to the proteomes of several <it>P. falciparum </it>strains, <it>P. reichenowi, P. vivax</it>, <it>P. knowlesi </it>and the rodent malaria species. All groups were found in the <it>P. falciparum </it>strains, and also in the <it>P. reichenowi </it>parasite, whereas none were predicted in the other species.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>We have generated a tool for the sorting of RIFIN and STEVOR proteins, large antigenic variant protein groups, into homogeneous sub-families. Assigning functions to such protein families requires their subdivision into meaningful groups such as we have shown for the RIFIN protein family. RSpred removes the need for complicated and time consuming phylogenetic analysis methods. It will benefit both research groups sequencing whole genomes as well as others working with field isolates. RSpred is freely accessible via <url>http://www.ifm.liu.se/bioinfo/</url>.</p

Effect of treating Schistosoma haematobium infection on Plasmodium falciparum-specific antibody responses

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The overlapping geographical and socio-economic distribution of malaria and helminth infection has led to several studies investigating the immunological and pathological interactions of these parasites. This study focuses on the effect of treating schistosome infections on natural human immune responses directed against plasmodia merozoite surface proteins MSP-1 (DPKMWR, MSP1₁₉), and MSP-2 (CH150 and Dd2) which are potential vaccine candidates as well as crude malaria (schizont) and schistosome (whole worm homogenate) proteins.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>IgG1 and IgG3 antibody responses directed against <it>Schistosoma haematobium </it>crude adult worm antigen (WWH) and <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>antigens (merozoite surface proteins 1/2 and schizont extract), were measured by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in 117 Zimbabweans (6–18 years old) exposed to <it>S. haematobium </it>and <it>P. falciparum </it>infection. These responses were measured before and after anti-helminth treatment with praziquantel to determine the effects of treatment on anti-plasmodial/schistosome responses.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>There were no significant associations between antibody responses (IgG1/IgG3) directed against <it>P. falciparum </it>and schistosomes before treatment. Six weeks after schistosome treatment there were significant changes in levels of IgG1 directed against schistosome crude antigens, plasmodia crude antigens, MSP-1₁₉, MSP-2 (Dd2), and in IgG3 directed against MSP-1₁₉. However, only changes in anti-schistosome IgG1 were attributable to the anti-helminth treatment.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>There was no association between anti-<it>P. falciparum </it>and <it>S. haematobium antibody </it>responses in this population and <it>a</it>nti-helminth treatment affected only anti-schistosome responses and not responses against plasmodia crude antigens or MSP-1 and -2 vaccine candidates.</p

The gastrointestinal nematode Trichostrongylus colubriformis down-regulates immune gene expression in migratory cells in afferent lymph

Background: Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are the predominant cause of economic losses in sheep. Infections are controlled almost exclusively by the use of anthelmintics which has lead to the selection of drug resistant nematode strains. An alternative control approach would be the induction of protective immunity to these parasites. This study exploits an ovine microarray biased towards immune genes, an artificially induced immunity model and the use of pseudo-afferent lymphatic cannulation to sample immune cells draining from the intestine, to investigate possible mechanisms involved in the development of immunity.\ud \ud Results: During the development of immunity to, and a subsequent challenge infection with Trichostrongylus colubriformis, the transcript levels of 2603 genes of cells trafficking in afferent intestinal lymph were significantly modulated (P < 0.05). Of these, 188 genes were modulated more than 1.3-fold and involved in immune function. Overall, there was a clear trend for down-regulation of many genes involved in immune functions including antigen presentation, caveolar-mediated endocytosis and protein ubiquitination. The transcript levels of TNF receptor associated factor 5 (TRAF5), hemopexin (HPX), cysteine dioxygenase (CDO1), the major histocompatability complex Class II protein (HLA-DMA), interleukin-18 binding protein (IL-18BP), ephrin A1 (EFNA1) and selenoprotein S (SELS) were modulated to the greatest degree.\ud \ud Conclusions: This report describes gene expression profiles of afferent lymph cells in sheep developing immunity to nematode infection. Results presented show a global down-regulation of the expression of immune genes which may be reflective of the natural temporal response to nematode infections in livestock