En funksjonell studie av det essensielle amidotransferasekomplekset MurT/CobQ i Streptococcus pneumoniae

The bacterial cell wall is responsible for maintaining cell shape and gives protection from osmotic lysis caused by turgor pressure. The major component of the cell wall in Gram-positive bacteria is the structurally complex biopolymer peptidoglycan. Streptococcus pneumoniae (Pneumococcus) is a Gram-positive human pathogen responsible for an estimated 1-2 million deaths annually worldwide. Studies of its cell wall synthesis machinery are of high academic interest and it can contribute to drug target discoveries, which have the potential to improve treatments in the future. The recently discovered essential amidotransferase complex MurT/CobQ, encoded by the operon murTcobQ, is in S. pneumoniae responsible for the amidation the peptidoglycan precursor lipid II. The amidation of the second residue γ-glutamate to isoglutamine in lipid II has previously been shown to be necessary for the transpeptidase activity of the peptidoglycan synthesising proteins, known as penicillin binding proteins (PBPs). What biological role this amidation plays is currently not known. In the present work depletion of MurT/CobQ expression has been used extensively to study how low levels of amidated lipid II affects the phenotype of S. pneumoniae. The sensitivity against the β−lactam antibiotics cefotaxime and ampicillin did not appear to be significantly affected by MurT/CobQ depletion, and neither did lysozyme resistance. The non-essential PBP1a is the only PBP to have reported residual transpeptidase activity with non-amidated lipid II in vitro. This proved difficult to demonstrate in vivo, and as such the results of these experiments were inconclusive. It was shown that depletion of MurT/CobQ severely affected the pneumococcal cells ability to properly divide, with septal cell wall synthesis being inhibited. The cells were still able to synthesize cell wall peripherally, strongly indicating that there is a difference between the septal and peripheral cell wall synthesising machineries in their ability to utilize non-amidated lipid II as substrate. The depletion of MurT/CobQ also affected the ability of the muralytic fratricide protein CbpD to successfully lyse cells, further strengthening the existing theory that this enzyme attacks the septal region of dividing cells. Furthermore this work demonstrated that in vivo, the PBPs are able to cross-link the stem peptides of the cell wall using non-amidated lipid II as substrate. Here it was shown that while the cell walls of normal pneumococcal cells contained a small amount of non-amidated stem-peptide dimers, cells depleted of MurT/CobQ contained significantly higher amounts of non-amidated stem-peptide dimers. Den bakterielle cellveggen gir bakteriecellene sin form og beskytter dem fra osmotisk lysis. Hovedkomponenten i celleveggen hos grampositive bakterier den komplekse biopolymeren peptidoglykan. Streptococcus pneumoniae er en grampositiv, humanpatogen bakterie som er ansvarlig for mellom 1-2 millioner dødsfall årlig på verdensbasis, og studier av celleveggssyntesen kan potensielt lede til forbedrede behandlingsmetoder i fremtiden. Det nylig oppdagede essensielle amidotransferasekomplekset MurT/CobQ, kodet av operonet murTcobQ, er ansvarlig for amideringen av peptidoglykanforløperen lipid II i S. pneumoniae. Amideringen av aminosyren γ−glutamat til isoglutamin i lipid II er tidligere vist å være nødvendig for transpeptidaseaktiviteten til de peptidoglykansyntetiserende enzymene (PBPer). Hvilken biologisk rolle denne amideringen spiller er for øyeblikket ukjent. I dette arbeidet har depletion (underuttrykk) av MurT/CobQ uttrykk blitt brukt for å studere hvordan lave konsentrasjoner av amidert lipid II påvirker fenotype hos S. pneumoniae. Sensitiviteten mot β−laktam antibiotikaene cefotaxim og ampicillin, samt lysozym ble ikke signifikant påvirket av MurT/CobQ depletion. Det ikke-essensielle enzymet PBP1a er det eneste som tidligere har vist en viss aktivitet med uamidert lipid II in vitro. Dette viste seg å være vanskelig å demonstrere in vivo, og resultatene fra disse forsøkene var mangelfulle. Arbeidet har vist at depletion av MurT/CobQ påvirker streptokokk-cellenes evne til å dele seg ved at den septale celleveggssyntesen blir inhibert. Cellene evnet fremdeles å syntetisere ny cellevegg i lengderetningen, noe som indikerer at der er en forskjell mellom de septale og perifere celleveggssyntesemaskinerienes evne til å bruke uamidert lipid II. Depletion av MurT/CobQ førte også til at det muralytiske fratricidproteinet CbpD ikke klarer å lysere celler, noe som bidrar til å styrke den rådende teorien om at dette proteinet angriper septum hos pneumokokker i delingsfasen. Videre viser denne studien at in vivo så evner PBPene å inkorporere og kryssbinde uamidert lipid II til en viss grad i celleveggen. Det ble vist at mens celleveggen til normale celler inneholdt en liten mengde uamiderte peptid-dimerer, så inneholdt MurTCobQ-depleted celler et signifikant høyere nivå av uamiderte peptid-dimerer.M-M

Analytical and Computational Study of Economic Dynamical Processes by Methods of Wave Dynamics

By methods of wave dynamics nonlinear equations for economic dynamical processes are derived. They deal both with the transition probabilities of Markov diffusion processes and the ones of random functions values. By using the mean curves of variations of random functions values with respect to time the nonlinear equations coefficients are ob-tained. Analytic and numerical solutions for several economic problems, such as the Black-Sholes precise bonds dynam-ics problem and others are foundMarkov diffusion processes; Black-Scholes model

Enzymatic debranching is a key determinant of the xylan-degrading activity of family AA9 lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases

Background: Previous studies have revealed that some Auxiliary Activity family 9 (AA9) lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) oxidize and degrade certain types of xylans when incubated with mixtures of xylan and cellulose. Here, we demonstrate that the xylanolytic activities of two xylan-active LPMOs, TtLPMO9E and TtLPMO9G from Thermothielavioides terrestris, strongly depend on the presence of xylan substitutions. Results: Using mixtures of phosphoric acid-swollen cellulose (PASC) and wheat arabinoxylan (WAX), we show that removal of arabinosyl substitutions with a GH62 arabinofuranosidase resulted in better adsorption of xylan to cellulose, and enabled LPMO-catalyzed cleavage of this xylan. Furthermore, experiments with mixtures of PASC and arabinoglucuronoxylan from spruce showed that debranching of xylan with the GH62 arabinofuranosidase and a GH115 glucuronidase promoted LPMO activity. Analyses of mixtures with PASC and (non-arabinosylated) beechwood glucuronoxylan showed that GH115 action promoted LPMO activity also on this xylan. Remarkably, when WAX was incubated with\ua0Avicel instead of PASC in the presence of the GH62, both xylan and cellulose degradation by the LPMO9 were impaired, showing that the formation of cellulose–xylan complexes and their susceptibility to LPMO action also depend on the properties of the cellulose. These debranching effects not only relate to modulation of the cellulose–xylan interaction, which influences the conformation and rigidity of the xylan, but likely also affect the LPMO–xylan interaction, because debranching changes the architecture of the xylan surface. Conclusions: Our results shed new light on xylanolytic LPMO9 activity and on the functional interplay and possible synergies between the members of complex lignocellulolytic enzyme cocktails. These findings will be relevant for the development of future lignocellulolytic cocktails and biomaterials

Quantifying Oxidation of Cellulose-Associated Glucuronoxylan by Two Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases from Neurospora crassa

Family AA9 lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are abundant in fungi, where they catalyze oxidative depolymerization of recalcitrant plant biomass. These AA9 LPMOs cleave cellulose and some also act on hemicelluloses, primarily other (substituted) beta-(1 -> 4)-glucans. Oxidative cleavage of xylan has been shown for only a few AA9 LPMOs, and it remains unclear whether this activity is a minor side reaction or primary function. Here, we show that Neurospora crassa LPMO9F (NcLPMO9F) and the phylogenetically related, hitherto uncharacterized NcLPMO9L from N. crassa are active on both cellulose and cellulose-associated glucuronoxylan but not on glucuronoxylan alone. A newly developed method for simultaneous quantification of xylan-derived and cellulose-derived oxidized products showed that NcLPMO9F preferentially cleaves xylan when acting on a cellulosebeechwood glucuronoxylan mixture, yielding about three times more xylan-derived than cellulose-derived oxidized products. Interestingly, under similar conditions, NcLPMO9L and the previously characterized McLPMO9H, from Malbranchea cinnamomea, showed different xylan-to-cellulose preferences, giving oxidized product ratios of about 0.5:1 and 1:1, respectively, indicative of functional variation among xylanactive LPMOs. Phylogenetic and structural analysis of xylan-active AA9 LPMOs led to the identification of characteristic structural features, including unique features that do not occur in phylogenetically remote AA9 LPMOs, such as four AA9 LPMOs whose lack of activity toward glucuronoxylan was demonstrated in the present study. Taken together, the results provide a path toward discovery of additional xylanactive LPMOs and show that the huge family of AA9 LPMOs has members that preferentially act on xylan. These findings shed new light on the biological role and industrial potential of these fascinating enzymes. IMPORTANCE Plant cell wall polysaccharides are highly resilient to depolymerization by hydrolytic enzymes, partly due to cellulose chains being tightly packed in microfibrils that are covered by hemicelluloses. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) seem well suited to attack these resilient copolymeric structures, but the occurrence and importance of hemicellulolytic activity among LPMOs remain unclear. Here, we show that certain AA9 LPMOs preferentially cleave xylan when acting on a cellulose-glucuronoxylan mixture, and that this ability is the result of protein evolution that has resulted in a clade of AA9 LPMOs with specific structural features. Our findings strengthen the notion that the vast arsenal of AA9 LPMOs in certain fungal species provides functional versatility and that AA9 LPMOs may have evolved to promote oxidative depolymerization of a wide variety of recalcitrant, copolymeric plant polysaccharide structures. These findings have implications for understanding the biological roles and industrial potential of LPMOs

Comparison of Six Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases from Thermothielavioides terrestris Shows That Functional Variation Underlies the Multiplicity of LPMO Genes in Filamentous Fungi

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are mono-copper enzymes that oxidatively degrade various polysaccharides. Genes encoding LPMOs in the AA9 family are abundant in filamentous fungi while their multiplicity remains elusive. We describe a detailed functional characterization of six AA9 LPMOs from the ascomycetous fungus Thermothielavioides terrestris LPH172 (syn. Thielavia terrestris). These six LPMOs were shown to be upregulated during growth on different lignocellulosic substrates in our previous study. Here, we produced them heterologously in Pichia pastoris and tested their activity on various model and native plant cell wall substrates. All six T. terrestris AA9 (TtAA9) LPMOs produced hydrogen peroxide in the absence of polysaccharide substrate and displayed peroxidase-like activity on a model substrate, yet only five of them were active on selected cellulosic substrates. TtLPMO9A and TtLPMO9E were also active on birch acetylated glucuronoxylan, but only when the xylan was combined with phosphoric acid-swollen cellulose (PASC). Another of the six AA9s, TtLPMO9G, was active on spruce arabinoglucuronoxylan mixed with PASC. TtLPMO9A, TtLPMO9E, TtLPMO9G, and TtLPMO9T could degrade tamarind xyloglucan and, with the exception of TtLPMO9T, beechwood xylan when combined with PASC. Interestingly, none of the tested enzymes were active on wheat arabinoxylan, konjac glucomannan, acetylated spruce galactoglucomannan, or cellopentaose. Overall, these functional analyses support the hypothesis that the multiplicity of the fungal LPMO genes assessed in this study relates to the complex and recalcitrant structure of lignocellulosic biomass. Our study also highlights the importance of using native substrates in functional characterization of LPMOs, as we were able to demonstrate distinct, previously unreported xylan-degrading activities of AA9 LPMOs using such substrates

Genetics of resistance to pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera in chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

Lists of genes that are differential expressed between pairwise comparisons of different treatments. The files are named based on the pairs compared. A read me file is included in the folder and explains the short names of the different treatments

A Wedding Gone Wrong The Rather Worldly Woes of a Rather Wealthy Qādirī Sufi Shaykh. Two 18th Century Documents from the Ottoman Court Records of Ḥamā and Aleppo

A rather intricate legal case took place first in Ḥamā’s and then in Aleppo’s Ottoman Islamic courts around the middle of the 18th century. The setting, the social standing of the individuals involved, and the alleged circumstances of the case all contribute to make clear that this was not just another routine court case. Altogether, the two documents are a good example of the scope and quality of the information preserved in the archives of local courts and they both demonstrate the extent and modes of implementation of Islamic law in a specific Ottoman milieu. The long inventory of personal property in the Aleppo document gives us a good idea of the social status and affluence enjoyed by the plaintiff – a member of the Jīlānī/Qādirī family - and an interesting insight into material culture and what constituted wealth and affluence at the time.

Anvende og fundamentale perspektiver på nedbrytningsmekanismer hos brunråtesopp

Woody biomass is an important material for the growing bioeconomy, and has gained significant attention as a feedstock for second-generation biorefineries. Wood has traditionally been used as a building material for millennia, but due to its biogenic nature is susceptible to degradation by wood decaying fungi. The biochemistry used by these fungi to degrade wood is of interest, both from a wood protection perspective, and as potential bioprocessing tools. In Nature, wood-degrading basidiomycetes, which can be grouped as white- or brown-rot fungi, are the only organism known to fully degrade the polysaccharides of lignified woody biomass. Brown-rot fungi are unique, in that they successfully remove holocellulose without the mineralization of lignin, unlike white-rot fungi, which degrade both holocellulose and lignin. The objective of this thesis is the study of fundamental brown-rot fungal decay mechanisms for applied utilization. This thesis describes studies on brown-rot decay from three perspectives; 1) the oxidative non-enzymatic early decay mechanisms as potential pretreatment of wood, 2) the expression of brown-rot decay associated genes on modified wood and 3) the interplay of cellulose-oxidizing lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases with hydrogen peroxide and reductants. In Paper I the early decay mechanisms of brown-rot fungi was studied as a potential pretreatment for Norway spruce wood. We show that Norway spruce pretreated with two species of brown-rot fungi yielded more than 250% increases in glucose release when subsequently treated with a commercial enzyme cocktail. A series of experiments were performed that aimed at mimicking the brown-rot pretreatment, using a modified version of the Fenton reaction. After pretreatment, where the aim was to generate reactive oxygen species within the wood cell wall matrix, a small increase in digestibility was observed, Further experiments were performed to assess the possibility of performing pretreatment and saccharification in a single system to avoid loss of solubilized sugars, but the results indicated the need for a complete separation of oxidative pretreatment and saccharification. We conclude that a biomimicking approach to pretreatment of softwoods using brown-rot fungal mechanisms is possible, but that there are additional factors of the system that need to be known and optimized before serious advances can be made to compete with already existing pretreatment methods. In Paper II, the aim was to determine the effect of acetylation of Pinus radiata wood (a type of wood modification), on the expression of genes involved in wood decay by brown-rot fungus Rhodonia placenta. The initiation of decay was delayed as a result the degree of acetylation, and gene expression analysis using qRT-PCR captured incipient to advanced decay stages. Once decay was established, the rate of degradation in acetylated samples was similar to that of unmodified wood. This suggests a delay in decay, rather than an absolute protection threshold at higher acetylation levels. In accordance with previous studies, the oxidative system of R. placenta was more active in wood with higher degrees of acetylation and expression of hydrolytic enzymes was delayed in acetylated samples compared to untreated samples. Enzymes involved in hemicellulose and pectin degradation have previously not been the focus of studies on degradation of acetylated wood. Interestingly, we observed that a CE16 carbohydrate esterase assumed to be involved in deacetylation of carbohydrates was expressed significantly higher in untreated samples compared to highly acetylated samples. We hypothesize that this enzyme might be regulated through a negative feedback system, where acetic acid suppresses the expression. The up-regulation of two expansin genes in acetylated samples suggests that their function, to loosen the cell wall, is needed more in acetylated wood due the physical bulking of the cell wall. In this study, we demonstrate that acetylation affects the expression of specific target genes not previously reported, resulting in delayed initiation of decay. In Paper III we purified and characterized a recombinant family AA9 lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase from Gloeophyllum trabeum, GtLPMO9B, which is active on both cellulose and xyloglucan. Activity of the enzyme was tested in the presence of three different reductants: ascorbic acid, gallic acid and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHBA). When using standard aerobic conditions typically used in LPMO experiments, the former two reductants could drive LPMO catalysis whereas 2,3-DHBA could not. In agreement with the recent discovery that H2O2 can drive LPMO catalysis, we show that gradual addition of H2O2 allowed LPMO activity at very low, sub-stoichiometric (relative to products formed) reductant concentrations. Most importantly, we found that while 2,3-DHBA is not capable of driving the LPMO reaction under standard aerobic conditions, it can do so in the presence of externally added H2O2. At alkaline pH, 2,3-DHBA is able to drive the LPMO reaction without externally added H2O2 and this ability overlaps entirely with endogenous generation of H2O2 by GtLPMO9B-catalyzed oxidation of 2,3-DHBA. These findings support the notion that H2O2 is a co-substrate of LPMOs, and provide insight into how LPMO reactions depend on, and may be controlled by, the choice of pH and reductant.Biomasse fra tre er et viktig materiale for den gryende bioøkonomien, og har tiltrukket seg betydelig oppmerksomhet som et råstoff for 2. generasjons bioraffinerier. Tre har tradisjonelt blitt brukt som byggemateriale i årtusener, men er på grunn av sitt biologiske opphav utsatt for angrep av vednedbrytende sopp. Biokjemien benyttet av disse soppene til å bryte ned tre er av interesse, både fra et trebeskyttelsesperspektiv, og som potensielle bioprosesseringsverktøy. I naturen er basidiomycete brun- og hvitråtesopp de eneste som bryter ned alle polysakkaridene i lignifisert plantemateriale. Brunråtesoppene er unike i at de fjerner holocellulose uten å mineralisere lignin, mens hvitråtesoppene bryter ned både lignin og holocellulose. Målet ved denne avhandlingen er å studere fundamentale brunråtesoppmekanismer for anvendte øyemed. Denne avhandlingen beskriver brunråtenedbrytning fra tre perspektiver: 1) oksidative ikke-enzymatiske nedbrytningsmekanismer som forbehandling av tremasse, 2) genuttrykk av nedbrytningsassosierte gener under vekst på modifisert tre, og 3) samspillet mellom celluloseoksiderende lytisk polysakkaridmonooksygenaser, hydrogenperoksid og reduktanter. I Paper I var de tidlig nedbrytningstrinn hos brunråtesopp studert som en potensiell forbehandling for gran (Picea abies). Vi viser at ved å forbehandle gran med to brunråtesopparter, kan enzymatisk hydrolyse med en kommersiell enzymcocktail forbedres, og fikk en over 250% økning i glukosefrigivelse. Vi utførte deretter en rekke eksperimenter, hvor målet var å mimikere brunråteforhåndsbehandlingen, ved bruk av en modifisert Fenton reaksjon. Her fikk vi en marginal økning i fornøyelighet etter forhåndsbehandling, hvor hensikten var å generere reaktive oksygenarter inne i treets cellevegg. Videre eksperimenter ble utført for å undersøke mulighetene for å gjøre forhåndsbehandling og sakkarifisering i ett og samme system, og resultatene her indikerer et behov for komplett seperasjon av forhåndsbehandling og sakkarifisering, da kjemikaliene i forhåndsbehandlingen viste seg å være skadelige for enzymene. Vi konkluderer med at en biomimetisk tilnærming til forhåndsbehandling av gran er teoretisk mulig, men at systemet trenger optimalisering før videre arbeid kan gjøres. I Paper II var målet å bestemme hvordan acetylering (trebeskyttelse) av Pinus radiata påvirket uttrykk av nedbrytningsgener hos brunråtesoppen Rhodonia placenta. Genuttrykk ble analysert ved bruk av qRT-PCR og fanget både tidlige og sene nedbrytningstrinn. Initieringen av nedbrytning ble forsinket som et resultat av acetylering. Når nedbrytningen først var etablert i acetylert tre var raten sammenlignbar med umodifisert tre, noe som indikerer en hemning av nedbrytning og ikke en total beskyttelse. I samsvar med tidligere studier var det oksidative nedbrytningssystemet hos R. placenta mer aktivt i tre med høy grad av acetylering, og uttrykk av hydrolytiske gener var forsinket sammenlignet med umodifisert tre. Vi studerte uttrykk av gener involvert i hemicellulose og pektin nedbrytning som ikke tidligere er beskrevet i studier på nedbrytning av acetylert tre. Vi observerte at en karbohydratesterase (CE16) som er antatt å være involvert i deacetylering av hemicellulose var nedregulert i acetylert tre, og fremsetter en hypotese om at dette genet er regulert via en negativ feedback mekanisme. Oppreguleringen av to expansin-gener i acetylert tre indikerer at denne modifiseringen øker behovet for å løsne cellevegginteraksjoner som en konsekvens av økte massetettheten. I denne studien demonstrerer vi at acetylering påvirker uttrykk av en rekke gener ikke tidligere studert under disse forholdene, og resulterer i forsinket nedbrytning. I Paper III har vi renset og karakterisert en rekombinant familie AA9 lytisk polysakkaridmonooksygenase (LPMO, GtLPMO9B) fra brunråtesoppen Gloeophyllum trabeum, som er aktiv på både cellulose og xyloglucan. Enzymaktivitet ble testet med tre forsjellige reduktanter: ascorbic acid (AscA), gallic acid (GA) og 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHBA). Under reaksjonsforhold vanligvis brukt i LPMO reaksjoner, var enzymet katalytisk aktivt med AscA og GA, man var det ikke med 2,3-DHBA. I samsvar med den nylige oppdagelsen at LPMO-katalyse kan drives av H2O2, viser vi at gradvis tilføring av H2O2 tillater LPMO aktivitet ved svært lave, sub-støkiometriske (relativt til produkt) reduktantkonsentrasjoner. Viktigst, så vi viser at, mens 2,3-DHBA ikke kunne drive LPMO reaksjonen under standard aerobe forhold, så kan den det i nærvær av tilført H2O2. Ved alkalisk pH (8.0-9.0), ble aktivitet med GtLPMO9B observert med 2,3-DHBA (uten ekstern tilførsel av H2O2), noe som overlappet 100% med endogen H2O2 produksjon via GtLPMO9B-katalysert oksidering av 2,3-DHBA. Disse funnen støtter teorien om at H2O2 er et kosubstrat for LPMOer, og tilfører ny kunnskap om hvorledes LPMO reaksjoner er avhengige, og potensielt kan kontrolleres med bruk av forskjellige reduktanter.NIBI

Eierskap og likestilling i norsk næringsliv

Likestilling i norsk næringsliv er en tematikk som har fått økt fokus i løpet av de siste årene. Og selv om kvinner har en mer fremtredende stilling i næringslivet i dag enn tidligere, er kvinner fortsatt svært underrepresentert i norsk næringsliv. Det er helt sentralt å vite årsakene for skjevfordelingen mellom kvinner og menn for å kunne endre det i fremtiden, og i denne oppgaven har jeg undersøkt om eierskap kan være en av årsakene for den manglende likestillingen. Problemstillingen i oppgaven er som følger: Finnes det en sammenheng mellom kvinnelig eierskap og andelen kvinner i topplederstillinger og styreverv? Jeg har utforsket eksisterende litteratur på feltet, innhentet empirisk materiale ved hjelp av tre ulike metoder og analysert og tolket materialet. Jeg har brukt en statistisk, kvantitativ undersøkelse hvor jeg har gått inn i 150 norske selskaper. Jeg undersøkte om selskapene hvor kvinnelige aksjonærer har en betydelig eierandel har flere kvinner i topplederstillinger og styreverv, enn selskapene uten en betydelig eierandel kvinner. Videre har jeg gjennomført en kvantitativ undersøkelse i form av en spørreundersøkelse. Jeg har spurt 80 norske kvinner i norsk næringsliv om de selv mener eierskap har en sammenheng med topplederstillinger og styreverv. I tillegg har jeg gjennomført kvalitative intervjuer med to forskere på feltet for å høre mer om den manglende likestillingen i næringslivet, og hva de tror er årsakene bak. Undersøkelsene viste at det er mange flere kvinner i topplederstillinger og styreverv i selskapene hvor kvinner har en betydelig eierandel, enn i selskapene uten en betydelig eierandel av kvinner. Spørreundersøkelsen viste at 56 prosent av respondentene mener eierskap er relevant for topplederstillinger og næringsliv. Og i de kvalitative intervjuene kom det frem at eierskap er en av flere grunner for den manglende likestillingen i norsk næringsliv. Mønsteret i funnene tyder på at eierskap har en sammenheng med andelen kvinner i topplederstillinger og styreverv, og eierskap ser ut til å være en av flere sentrale årsaker for skjevfordelingen mellom kvinner og menn i norsk næringsliv