Human-wildlife interactions in the Ruaha-Rungwa Ecosystem, Central Tanzania

Human wildlife interactions pose the challenges to life and livelihoods of humans living around wildlife protected areas (PA). Similarly, these interactions affect wildlife negatively, thus undermining the conservation efforts. This thesis seeks to understand how human wildlife interactions affect human beings and wildlife in the Ruaha-Rungwa Ecosystem (RRE) in central Tanzania. This understanding is important in devising effective management interventions as authorities and agencies seek to ensure a beneficial and harmonious coexistence between humans and wildlife. The first part of this thesis is composed of three publishedpapers: An Assessment of crop and livestock losses caused by wild animals (Paper I), Human-elephant interactions in areas surrounding the Rungwa, Kizigo, and Muhesi Game Reserves, central Tanzania (Paper II) and the Awareness and Attitudes of Local People towards Wildlife Conservation in the Rungwa Game Reserve in Central Tanzania (Paper III). This study has established that the incidences of livestock depredation and crop damage were found to be higher in areas closest to the reserve boundary (Paper 1). Crop losses caused by wildlife in the area averaged 430 kg (equivalent to US$126) per household per year for households reporting to have incurred such losses. Maize crops were identified as the main food crops cultivated by farmers in the study area, which were mostly raided by wild animals. Other types of crops cultivated and reported to have been damaged by wild animals include bean, groundnut, sunflower, and other mixed crops. The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was the most reported problem animal and was responsible for more than 96 Livestock depredation by large carnivores resulted in an average loss of 1.9 animals per household per year. Over the last 12 months, a total of 39 cattle, 26 goats, 14 sheep and 4 donkeys were reported to have been killed by large carnivores. The average economic losses of livestock in the area are equivalent to US$243.25 per household per year. The most commonly referenced large carnivore was the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), followed by the lion (Panthera leo) and leopard (Panthera pardus) (Paper I). The most significant contributing factor was found to be distance to the PA, as most reporting livestock depredation incidences were from the villages located closest to the Game Reserve. Crop damage caused by African elephants considerably increased with less distance from the reserve boundary. Farmers residing close to the PA’s borders reported crop damage much more frequently than those with farms farther from the boundary (Paper II). In more distant villages, people were more likely to support the conservation of wildlife than those residing in the closest villages (Paper III). The most important factor influencing people’s attitudes towards wildlife conservation in the area was found to be the distance from the reserve boundary and areas in which a person farmed. Other factors identified include the farmer’s age, immigration status, occupation and education level and incidents of crop damage and livestock depredation (Paper III). The second part of the thesis is composed of two published papers: Trophy Hunting Versus Ecotourism as a Conservation Model? Assessing the Impacts on Ungulate Behaviour and Demographics in the Ruaha-Rungwa Ecosystem, Central Tanzania (paper IV) and Drivers of conservation crimes in the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi Game Reserves, Central Tanzania (Paper V). Paper IV establishes that trophy hunting affects animal behaviour by rendering hunted animals more vigilant, by increasing flight initiation distance (FID), and by decreasing group sizes and calf ratios. The effect of trophy hunting on ungulate behaviours was examined by comparing the behaviours of the impala (Aepyceros melampus) and greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) in hunted populations of the Rungwa Game Reserve (RGR) and in non-hunted populations of Ruaha National Park (RNP) of Central Tanzania. In the adjoining RNP, the only permitted tourism activity is photographic tourism, and thus, it served as a control site. The observed differences were ascribed to the direct and indirect effects of trophy hunting in the RGR. Residents in the study area also engage in the illegal harvesting of forest resources and wild animals (Paper V). The results of Paper V show that people who do not own land or livestock, unemployed, and young males are more likely to commit conservation crimes in the area. Furthermore, those who own livestock but lack land for pasture or grazing areas are more likely to move their livestock into the RGR. The encroachment for agriculture into areas adjacent to the RRE has been a major cause of escalating conflict due to crop damage and livestock depredation by problem animals, as most conflicts occur in areas close to the boundaries of the PA. Mitigation measures have involved the use of traditional and simple methods of noise creation, aversive crop planting (chilli), and beehive establishment around farm boundaries, but such methods have not been effective in controlling the damage caused by problem wild animals. In ensuring the continued coexistence of wildlife and human beings in the study area, this work makes the following recommendations. Conservation education on appropriate mitigation measures for controlling crop and livestock losses by wild animals must be provided. Education will foster local knowledge and enhance the awareness of and attitudes toward co-existence with wildlife. Land use planning is also recommended, as currently most of the known wildlife dispersal areas in the area are not established or zoned, which risks their future destruction and loss. We also recommend farmers to avoid farming in areas close to the PA, as our findings and experience from other ecosystems show that crop farms positioned close to PA boundaries tend to be the most heavily affected. Strengthening law enforcement as a deterrence measure. Development of entrepreneurship skills. This will enhance employment as a means of limiting the illegal harvesting of wild animals and forest resources

Impacts of human settlements and land use changes in Kwakuchinja wildlife corridor, Northern Tanzania

The Kwakuchinja wildlife corridor is threatened by human settlements and land use changes. This study assesses the impacts of human settlements and land use changes in the period 1990 - 2010. Satellite images for year 1990, 2000 and 2010 were analysed in obtaining the changes in land cover types such as bushland, woodland, cultivated land, grassland and bare soil. Questionnaires were administered to obtain the history of the corridor, wildlife mammals and people s views on the impacts settlements to wildlife. A total of 250 households were randomly selected from three villages (Kakoye, Minjingu and Olasiti) which are found within the corridor. Sixty percent (60 %) of the total area of the Kwakuchinja wildlife corridor was found to be under cultivation (both continuous and scattered cultivated land). The rate natural rangeland habitats conversions to cropland cultivation are high and they are also pressured by a high rate of population growth (3.8 %) in the corridor. Wildlife habitat loss, physical developments, overexploitations of wildlife resources, wildlife competitions with other land use types and pollutions are human related impacts to wildlife in the corridor. Wildlife also caused negative impacts to people in the corridor in terms of crop damage, livestock depredations, human injuries, infrastructure damage and blocking local people to access firewood, schools, dispensaries and shopping canters. Most of the cropland expansions were in the period 2000 2010 that resulted into great losses of natural habitats for wildlife. This is also attributed by immigrations of people from other places opening new fields for cultivations which lead to deforestations and a dramatic decline in bushland, woodland and grassland in Kwakuchinja wildlife corridor. There are dramatic land use changes in the period 1990 2010 and these changes have negative impacts in terms of loss of natural habitats for wildlife, causing negative impacts to both wildlife and people. Conservation educations, land use planning, family planning to reduce rate of natural population growth and income generating projects should be emphasised in the conservation of the corridor

Human-elephant interactions in areas surrounding the Rungwa, Kizigo, and Muhesi Game Reserves, central Tanzania

This study assesses the patterns of crop damage by elephants Loxodonta africana in areas adjacent to the Rungwa, Kizigo and Muhesi Game Reserves in Tanzania. We used a questionnaire survey to collect data from a total of 210 household heads from seven villages, with 30 household heads in each village, during June–August 2015. Proximity was a significant factor influencing losses, with crop farms within 5 km distant. Most households (81.0%) 5 km (20.0%) reported less damage. Most of the losses (79.8%) occurred in the first half of the year (the wet season). Immigrants reported higher average losses to crops than Indigenous respondents. Noise making, flashlights, setting fire around fields and disturbance by shooting were the methods used to deter elephants from entering crop fields. We recommend that communities around these game reserves avoid areas that are < 1 km from the reserve boundary, plant crops such as chilli, use honeybee Apis mellifera fences to deter elephants from their crops, and receive education on available mitigation methods, to help minimize crop losses to elephants

Assessing crop and livestock losses along the Rungwa-Katavi Wildlife Corridor, South-Western Tanzania

Humans and wildlife interact negatively, especially when humans transform natural wildlife habitats by establishing settlements and crop fields. Encroachment and habitat fragmentations caused by human activities decrease habitat size and quality for wildlife and reduce connectivity among protected areas. The major objective was to quantify economic loss inflicted by wildlife species to local communities in terms of crop and livestock losses. The influence of distance from the boundary of the protected area was also assessed. 240 copies of open and closed ended questionnaire were randomly administered in five selected villages in the Rungwa-Katavi Corridor between the Rungwa Game Reserve and Katavi National Park. The average loss to wildlife per household was 430 kg of crops, equivalent to US $126.23, as well as livestock, including cattle (0.9), goats (0.6), sheep (0.3), and donkeys (0.09) equivalent to US$260.23 per household per year. The reported incidences of crop damage and livestock attack varied among different age groups and between genders. The depredation and crop raiding incidences increased with proximity to the protected areas as contact with predators and vermin animals was higher closer to the protected areas. Implementing proper land use planning for livestock keepers, crop production and conservation land is recommended as an effective strategy to safeguard protected areas and minimize human-wildlife conflict

Trophy Hunting Versus Ecotourism as a Conservation Model? Assessing the Impacts on Ungulate Behaviour and Demographics in the Ruaha-Rungwa Ecosystem, Central Tanzania

Trophy hunting may influence wildlife populations in many ways, but these effects have received little consideration in many of Africa’s protected areas. We assessed the effects of trophy hunting on group size, behaviour, flight initiation distance, sex ratio and calf recruitment rate in two model species, impala (Aepyceros melampus) and greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), in Rungwa Game Reserve (RGR), Tanzania. The adjoining Ruaha National Park (RNP) served as a control site, since only ecotourism is permitted. Road transects were driven and data recorded immediately upon sighting animals. Both impala and greater kudu had higher flight initiation distances, smaller group size, lower calf recruitment rates and higher levels of vigilance behaviour in RGR compared to those in RNP. Sex ratios did not differ between the two areas. The observed differences are ascribed to the direct and indirect effects of trophy hunting in RGR. Low calf recruitment rates in RGR are of concern, as this may directly compromise population growth rates. Long-term studies may therefore be required to assess how hunted populations are affected by different hunting intensities and at what point this may threaten population persistence

Drivers of conservation crimes in the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi Game Reserves, Central Tanzania

Conservation crimes are posing serious threats to wildlife species and biodiversity of the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi-Game-Reserves. Devising effective strategies to reduce risks to as low as reasonably possible of these crimes, calls for adequate information on factors driving people to commit these crimes. Data for this study were obtained from 315 respondents in 20 villages and 316 people who were arrested for committing different conservation crimes in the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi-Game-Reserves. Our results suggest that arrested respondents were typically young adult males with limited alternative sources of income and owning virtually no livestock or land. There were heterogeneous drivers for each type of conservation crime. To address the challenge of conservation crimes in the Reserve, we recommend, among other strategies, the establishment of effective conservation education programmes, strengthening law enforcements as a deterrence method, and development of entrepreneurship skills to enhance employment

Drivers of conservation crimes in the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi Game Reserves, Central Tanzania

Conservation crimes are posing serious threats to wildlife species and biodiversity of the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi-Game-Reserves. Devising effective strategies to reduce risks to as low as reasonably possible of these crimes, calls for adequate information on factors driving people to commit these crimes. Data for this study were obtained from 315 respondents in 20 villages and 316 people who were arrested for committing different conservation crimes in the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi-Game-Reserves. Our results suggest that arrested respondents were typically young adult males with limited alternative sources of income and owning virtually no livestock or land. There were heterogeneous drivers for each type of conservation crime. To address the challenge of conservation crimes in the Reserve, we recommend, among other strategies, the establishment of effective conservation education programmes, strengthening law enforcements as a deterrence method, and development of entrepreneurship skills to enhance employment. Keywords: Bushmeat poaching, Conservation criminology, Elephant, Illegal timber logging, Wildlife poachin

Between hunter and climate: the effects of hunting and environmental change on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in two sympatric ungulate species in the Ruaha-Rungwa ecosystem, Tanzania

Understanding the drivers of animal population decline is a key focus of conservation biologists. Anthropogenic activities such as hunting have long been established as potentially detrimental to a population\u27s persistence. However, environmental perturbations such as increased temperature variability, exacerbated by climate change, can also have important effects on animal populations. Animals can respond to these challenges by adjusting both their behavior and physiology. We measured fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs) of common impala (Aepyceros melampus) and greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), both currently in stable populations, to examine effects of hunting, forage availability, daily variability in temperature and group size on their physiological stress response. The study was conducted across two adjacent protected areas, (i) one non-hunted area (Ruaha National Park; RNP) and (ii) one area used for trophy hunting (Rungwa Game Reserve; RGR). Both impala and kudu had significantly higher FGM levels in the area that allows hunting, while FGM levels decreased with increasing forage availability and increasing daily temperature. Moreover, impala (but not kudu) had lower FGM levels with larger group sizes. Our results indicate that the management regime can significantly alter the physiological state of wild ungulate populations. We also highlight the importance of considering the combined effects of anthropogenic, environmental and social contexts when studying the stress response of wild populations. Our results emphasize the value of protected areas and continued monitoring of hunting quota in order to maintain ungulate populations that are less vulnerable to population declines