How to interpret the growing phenomenon of private tutoring : human capital deepening, inequality increasing, or waste of resources ?

Private tutoring is now a major component of the education sector in many developing countries, yet education policy too seldom acknowledges and makes use of it. Various criticisms have been raised against private tutoring, most notably that it exacerbates social inequalities and may even fail to improve student outcomes. This paper surveys the literature for evidence on private tutoring-the extent of the tutoring phenomenon, the factors that explain its growth, and its cost-effectiveness in improving student academic performance. It also presents a framework for assessing the efficiency and equity effects of tutoring. It concludes that tutoring can raise the effectiveness of the education system under certain reasonable assumptions, even taking into account equity concerns, and it offers guidance for attacking corruption and other problems that diminish the contributions of the tutoring sector.Teaching and Learning,Tertiary Education,Education For All,Primary Education,

Switching Diffusion Systems With Past-Dependent Switching Having A Countable State Space

Emerging and existing applications in wireless communications, queueing networks, biological models, financial engineering, and social networks demand the mathematical modeling and analysis of hybrid models in which continuous dynamics and discrete events coexist. Assuming that the systems are in continuous times, stemming from stochastic-differential-equation-based models and random discrete events, switching diffusions come into being. In such systems, continuous states and discrete events (discrete states) coexist and interact. A switching diffusion is a two-component process $(X(t),\alpha(t))$, a continuous component and a discrete component taking values in a discrete set (a set consisting of isolated points). When the discrete component takes a value $i$ (i.e., $\alpha(t)=i$), the continuous component $X(t)$ evolves according to the diffusion process whose drift and diffusion coefficients depend on $i$. Until very recently, in most of the literature $\alpha(t)$ was assumed to be a process taking values in a finite set, and that the switching rates of $\alpha(t)$ are either independent or depend only on the current state of $X(t)$. To be able to treat more realistic models and to broaden the applicability, this dissertation undertakes the task of investigating the dynamics of $(X(t),\alpha(t))$ in a much more general setting in which $\alpha(t)$ has a countable state space and its switching intensities depend on the history of the continuous component $X(t)$. We systematically established important properties of this system: well-posedness, the Markov Feller property, and the recurrence and ergodicity of the associated function-valued process. We have also studied several types of stability for the system

Towards a Network of Marine Protected Areas in the South China Sea: Legal and Political Perspectives

The once pristine and rich marine environment of the South China Sea is degrading at an alarming rate due to the rapid socioeconomic development of the region. Despite this, and because mainly of complicated sovereignty and maritime boundary disputes, coastal States have not been able to develop effective regional cooperation to safeguard the shared marine environment. This dissertation, “Towards a Network of Marine Protected Areas in the South China Sea: Legal and Political Perspectives”, researches legal and political measures to support the development of a network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea. Such a network, if properly developed, would not only help to protect the marine environment and resources of the region but also contribute to lower the tension among its coastal States. These measures should be developed in accordance with international law, based on the specific geopolitical context of the South China Sea region and take into consideration experiences in developing regional networks of marine protected areas from other marine regions. Consequently, three optional categories of measures for the development of a network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea are suggested at the end. They include national-focused measures; measures to enhance the regional cooperation; and measures to build a regime for marine protected areas and network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea. These measures could be taken alternatively or on a step-by-step basis

Anaerobic O-demethylation in acetobacterium dehalogenans: interaction mediated by O-demethylase components

The gram positive bacterium Acetobacterium dehalogenans belongs to the group of acetogens. The anaerobe utilizes the methyl group of phenyl methyl ethers, which are products of the lignin degradation process, as a carbon and energy source. The O-demethylation reaction in which the methyl group of the substrate is transferred to tetrahydrofolate is mediated by the key enzymes, the O-demethylases, in the methylotrophic metabolism. The O-demethylase enzyme complex consists of four components: a methyltransferase I (MT I) transfers the methyl group of a phenyl methyl ether to a super-reduced corrinoid protein ([CoI]-CP) to form methylcobalamin (CH3-[CoIII]-CP). The second methyltransferase (MT II) mediates the methyl transfer from CH3-[CoIII]-CP to tetrahydrofolate forming methyltetrahydrofolate. The inactive form of the corrinoid protein ([CoII]-CP), which is occasionally generated by inadvertent oxidation, is reduced by the activating enzyme (AE) in an ATP dependent reaction. Four different O-demethylase enzyme systems were identified as guaiacol-, syringate-, vanillate-, and veratrol-O-demethylase. In the work presented here, the interactions of the O-demethylase components were studied using two-hybrid assays, gel shift experiments and far-Western blot analyses. Emphasis was laid on studies on the interaction of AE and CP. With the exception of the yeast two-hybrid assay (Y2H), an interaction between AE and CP was always observed. In gel shift experiments, the presence of the corrinoid cofactor was a prerequisite for the interaction of the two components. On native PAGE, AE appeared as dimer. The Y2H experiments pointed to an involvement of the N-terminal fragment of AE (AE 1-133) in the oligomerization of the protein. Interaction studies in the presence of the other O-demethylase components revealed interactions of CP and the two MTs which is in accordance to the proposed reaction mechanism of the O-demethylases. The reductive activation of CP catalyzed by AE in an ATP dependent reaction was also studied. It was shown that AE is able to reduce the corrinoid cofactor of different CPs and therefore, AE seems to be an universal reductive activator of corrinoid enzymes of A. dehalogenans. The physiological electron donor for the corrinoid reduction is unknown so far. In this study two genes of A. dehalogenans encoding putative ferredoxins (Fds) were cloned and heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. The reconstituted Fds I and II showed typical UV/Vis spectra for the presence of iron-sulfur clusters. The amino acid sequence analyses and iron determinations indicated that Fd I contains 4 [4Fe-4S] clusters while Fd II harbors two of these. However, the involvement of the two ferredoxins in corrinoid activation could not be demonstrated by the biochemical assays used.Der gram-positive Mikroorganismus Acetobacterium dehalogenans gehört zur Gruppe der acetogenen Bakterien. Er verwendet die Methylgruppe von Phenylmethylethern, Abbauprodukten des Lignins, als Kohlenstoff- und Energiequelle. Die Methylgruppe der Substrate wird durch O-Demethylasen, die Schlüsselenzyme des methylotrophen Stoffwechsels, auf Tetrahydrofolat übertragen. O-Demethylasen sind Enzymkomplexe und bestehen aus vier Proteinen: die Methyltransferase I (MT I) überträgt die Methylgruppe vom Phenylmethylether auf das super-reduzierte Corrinoidprotein ([CoI]-CP) unter Bildung von Methylcobalamin (CH3-[CoIII]-CP). Die Methyltransferase II (MT II) katalysiert den Methylgruppentransfer von CH3-[CoIII]-CP auf Tetrahydrofolat. Methyltetrahydrofolat wird gebildet. Die inaktive Form des Corrinoidproteins ([CoII]-CP), die aufgrund von Autoxidation entsteht, wird in einer ATP-abhängigen Reaktion durch das Aktivierende Enzym (AE) reduziert. Vier verschiedene O-Demethylase-Systeme – die Guaiacol-, die Syringat-, die Vanillat- und die Veratrol-O-Demethylase – wurden bisher in A. dehalogenans identifiziert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Interaktion der O-Demethylasekomponenten unter Verwendung von Two-Hybrid-Systemen, Gel-Shift- sowie Far-Western Blot-Experimenten untersucht. Schwerpunkt war hierbei die Interaktion von AE und CP, die mit Ausnahme des Yeast Two-Hybrid-Systems (Y2H) für alle Methoden nachgewiesen werden konnte. In Gel-Shift-Experimenten war das Vorhandensein des Corrinoid-Cofaktors Voraussetzung für die Interaktion dieser beiden Proteinkomponenten. Auf nativen Gelen wurde AE als Dimer detektiert. Y2H-Analysen zeigten, dass für die Oligomerisierung wahrscheinlich ein N-terminales AE-Fragment verantwortlich ist. Interaktionsstudien in Anwesenweit weiterer O-Demethylasekomponenten führten zum Nachweis der Interaktion von CP mit beiden MT-Proteinen. Dieses Ergebnis stimmt mit dem postulierten Reaktionsmechanismus überein. Die Reduktion von inaktivem CP, die durch AE in einer ATP-abhängigen Reaktion katalysiert wird, war ebenfalls Bestandteil der hier durchgeführten Untersuchungen. Es wurde gezeigt, dass AE verschiedene Corrinoidproteine reduzieren kann. Somit scheint AE in A. dehalogenans als universeller reduktiver Aktivitator von Corrinoidproteinen zu fungieren. Der physiologische Elektronendonor dieses Prozesses ist bisher nicht bekannt. Es wurden zwei mutmaßliche Ferredoxingene von A. dehalogenans heterolog in Escherichia coli exprimiert. Die rekombinanten Ferredoxine (Fd) I und II wiesen nach Rekonstituion typische UV/Vis-Spektren für Eisen/Schwefel-Cluster-enthaltende Proteine auf. Sequenzanalysen sowie die Bestimmung von Eisen zeigten, dass Fd I vier und Fd II zwei [4Fe-4S]-Cluster enthält. Eine Beteiligung der Ferredoxine bei der Corrinoidaktivierung konnte bisher jedoch nicht gezeigt werden

School Access, Resources, and Learning Outcomes: Evidence from a Non-formal School Program in Bangladesh

This study reports evidence from an unusual policy intervention – The Reaching Out of School Children (ROSC) project – in Bangladesh where school grants and education allowances are offered to attract hard-to-reach children to schools comprised of a single teacher and a classroom. The operating unit cost of these schools is a fraction of that of formal primary schools. We use panel data to investigate whether ROSC schools are effective in raising enrolment and learning outcomes. Our findings suggest that there is a modest impact on school participation: ROSC schools increase enrolment probability between 9 and 18% for children in the two age cohorts 6-8 and 6-10. They perform as well as non-ROSC schools in terms of raising test scores, and even have positive impacts on academically stronger students. There is also strong evidence of positive externalities on non-ROSC schools in program areas. These results point to the effectiveness of a new model of non-formal primary schools that can be replicated in similar settings.non-formal school, impact evaluation, multiple treatments, learning outcomes

International aid and financial crises in donor countries

The global financial crisis has already led to sharp downturns in the developing world. In the past, international aid has been able to offset partially the effects of crises that began in the developing world, but because this crisis began in the wealthy countries, donors may be less willing or able to increase aid in this crisis. Not only have donor-country incomes fallen, but the cause of the drop -- the banking and financial-sector crisis -- may exacerbate the effect on aid flows because of its heavy fiscal costs. This paper estimates how donor-country banking crises have affected aid flows in the past, using panel data from 24 donor countries between 1977 and 2007. The analysis finds that banking crises in donor countries are associated with a substantial additional fall in aid flows, beyond any income-related effects, perhaps because of the high fiscal costs of crisis and the debt hangover in the post-crisis periods. In most specifications, aid flows from crisis-affected countries fall by an average of 20 to 25 percent (relative to the counterfactual) and bottom out only about a decade after the banking crisis hits. In addition, the results confirm that donor-country incomes are robustly related to per-capita aid flows, with an elasticity of about 3. Because all donor countries are being hit hard by the current global recession, and several have also suffered banking-sector crises, there are reasons to expect that aid could fall by a significant amount (again, relative to the counterfactual) in the coming years -- just when aid may be most clearly justified to help smooth exogenous shocks to developing countries.Economic Conditions and Volatility,Labor Policies,Debt Markets,Development Economics&Aid Effectiveness,Banks&Banking Reform