Explanations for patterning in the ‘package of traits’ of modern human behaviour within Sahul

Late Pleistocene Sahul has provided a test for the debate surrounding the appearance of the ‘package’ of modern human behaviour within the archaeological record. A detailed review of the late Pleistocene archaeological record of Sahul (Franklin and Habgood 2007; Habgood and Franklin 2008) found both chronological and geographical patterning for the appearance of the individual traits - four broad Phases and seven ‘Zones of Innovation’. We consider potential causes for this patterning including taphonomy and artefact function, but conclude that it reflects material culture differences and cultural preferences

Views from across the ocean: a demographic, social and symbolic framework for the appearance of modern human behaviour

The continent of Sahul (Figure 12.1) was colonised some 50,000 years ago by anatomically and behaviourally modern humans. Reviews of the Pleistocene archaeological record of Sahul provide alternative perspectives on the debate surrounding the appearance of a “package” of archaeologically visible traits that have been argued to reflect modern human behaviour. We found (Franklin & Habgood 2007; Habgood & Franklin 2008, 2010) that the appearance of the individual traits revealed both chronological and geographical patterning within Sahul: Chronologically, the package was gradually assembled over 40,000 years following initial occupation of the continent by behaviourally modern colonists, with four broad phases being recognised (Figure 12.2). Geographically, seven “Zones of Innovation” were identified (Figure 12.1), and the Northern Zone could be further subdivided into three. From this pattern it was concluded that modern human behaviour cannot be automatically inferred from inventories of archaeologically recovered material, as the earliest Indigenous inhabitants of Sahul were behaviourally modern, yet the full package of traits was not present at the earliest sites (see also Brumm & Moore 2005; O'Connell & Allen 2007; Balme et al. 2009). Therefore, alternative explanations for the appearance of these archaeological features were sought. The potential causal influence of taphonomy on the patterning identified has previously been considered, but it was concluded that the pattern was not the direct result of taphonomic processes (Franklin & Habgood 2007; Habgood & Franklin 2008, 2010; contra Langley et al. 2011; Langley, this volume). Taphonomy does impact on site assemblages; however, we contend that the patterning for key components of the package was the result of material culture differences and cultural preferences of the Indigenous inhabitants

Modern human behaviour and Pleistocene Sahul in review

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in Europe has furnished a 'package' of archaeologically visible innovations that are claimed to reflect modern human behaviour. McBrearty and Brooks (2000) documented the gradual assembling of the package over a 200,000 year period in the African Middle Stone Age and proposed that it was later exported to other regions of the Old World. Mellars (2006) recently proposed that modern humans quickly spread from Africa with the package of modern human behaviours and colonised not only Europe but also southern Asia and ultimately Australia. In this paper, we examine the late Pleistocene-early Holocene archaeological record of Sahul to establish if the package was brought here by the earliest colonising groups. We find that the package is not evident at the earliest sites; rather, its components were gradually assembled over a 30,000 year period following initial occupation of the continent by anatomically and behaviourally modern humans. The review further supports the view that there is currently no package of archaeologically visible traits that can be used to establish modern human behaviour, as the components not only appear in different continents at different times, but also at different times and locations within continents such as Australia. This review also identifies chronological and geographical patterning of the individual 'traits' and proposes six 'zones of innovation' across Sahu

Tracing symbolic behaviour across the southern arc

This chapter traces early expressions of symbolic behaviour:-rock art, personal ornaments, occurrences of ochre, notational pieces, and mortuary practices-across the southern arc dispersal route of modern humans out of Africa to Sahul, from some 70-60,000 years ago. These aspects of symbolic behaviour do not display a consistent pattern of appearance along the southern arc, and dates for their appearance/preservation do not become progressively more recent as modern humans moved east out of Africa. These results are explained using the demographic, social, and symbolic framework proposed to account for geographical and chronological patterning observed in the 'package’ of traits reflecting modern human behaviour. In this model, the appearance of symbolic behaviour is determined by levels of local/regional population pressure necessitating (or not) the need for identity signalling, 'bonding’ behaviour/open social networks, and 'bounding’ or emblemic behaviour/closed social networks

Elemental differences: Geochemical identification of aboriginal silcrete sources in the Arcadia Valley, eastern Australia

Portable X-ray Fluorescence (PXRF) analysis was applied to silcrete artefacts from surface concentrations in the southern Arcadia Valley, eastern Australia. These artefacts were manufactured from river cobbles, as shown by the waterworn cortex, and could have been obtained from three sources: Dawson River, Carnarvon Creek and/or Clematis Creek. PXRF analyses of cobbles from these sites, evaluated using nonparametric statistics (because the data are skewed) and confidence ellipses, showed that the three sources can be distinguished by their Fe and Zr concentrations. Comparison with artefact analyses showed that many artefacts were probably sourced from Clematis Creek, with a substantial number from Dawson River but few, if any, from Carnarvon Creek. The sourcing pattern indicates that Aboriginal people in the Arcadia Valley were influenced not only by proximity when procuring silcrete, but also quality, cobble size and traditional mobility strategies. Carnarvon Creek was ignored because of its distance from the artefact sites and lower quality silcrete. Clematis Creek was the most favoured source because although distant from the artefact sites, it contained large silcrete cobbles (sufficient for the manufacture of large scrapers and knives), and was probably visited frequently due to its central location in the traditional country of the Karingbal People. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Gilparrka Almira, a rock art site in Mithaka Country, southwest Queensland: cultural connections, dreaming tracks and trade routes

This paper describes a rock engraving site in Mithaka Country in the Channel Country, southwest Queensland, where the majority of the motifs consist of crescents or variations on crescents. This is the first rock art site to be recorded in Mithaka Country, which is in a part of Australia's sandy deserts where rock art is uncommon.Gilparrka Almira is placed within a broader social context by exploring its possible cultural connections with other sites and regions. Regional comparisons of the main motif type found that proportions decreased in all directions away from the site. Possible meanings for crescent imagery are then examined from ethnohistorical sources, indicating that crescent motifs may bear a range of “discontinuous” meanings that can be used in different contexts. It is suggested that crescent motifs may have moved/diffused across vast areas of the continent, following the north-south Lake Eyre Basin trade network, with Mithaka Country lying at its approximate centre, and other (east-west) trade routes, along the Dreaming tracks with which the trade routes are frequently associated. Motifs with “discontinuous” meaning ranges, like crescents, would have been particularly suitable for use in this scenario because of their ability to be readily incorporated into different social contexts